Haiti: Background to the Overthrow of President Aristide

CRS Report for Congress
Haiti: Background to the 1991 Overthrow
of President Aristide
October 22, 1993
Maureen Taft-Morales
Analyst in Latin American Affairs
Foreign Affairs, Defense, and Trade Division
Congressional Research Service ˜ The Library of Congress
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Haiti: Background to the 1991 Overthrow
of President Aristide
Summary
The overthrow of Haiti’s first democratically elected president in September

1991 propelled Haiti into its worst crisis since popular protests brought down the 29-


year dictatorship of the Duvalier family in 1986. Father Jean-Bertrand Aristide was
elected President of Haiti in a landslide victory on December 16, 1990, in what was
widely heralded as the first free and fair election in the country’s 186-year history.
A Catholic priest of the radical left, he was inaugurated on February 7, 1991, and
overthrown by the military on September 30.
Politics in Haiti have been generally violent and authoritarian, ever since Haiti
became an independent republic in 1804. The legacy of despotic rulers has been
difficult to overcome.
The United States intervened in Haiti in 1915 to stop civil strife and prevent
Germany from establishing a foothold. The U.S. Marines occupied Haiti until 1934,
overseeing public works, tax collection, treasury management, and the development
of a native Haitian Constabulary which was Haiti’s first professional military force.
While many of these contributions were welcomed and much needed, many Haitians
deeply resented the U.S. presence as an affront to Haitian sovereignty.
From 1957 through 1986, Francois Duvalier and his son Jean-Claude rule Haiti
for nearly 30 years, leaving behind a legacy of repression and corruption. After
Duvalier’s ouster in 1986, a series of short-lived governments, most military-
dominated, ruled through 1990.
This report provides background information on the violent and authoritarian
traditions that have characterized Haiti’s political dynamics since Haiti attained
independence in 1804. It examines Haiti’s difficult path toward democracy after the
fall of the Duvalier regime, from numerous short-lived governments until the election
of Aristide in December 1990. Finally, the report also briefly surveys Aristide’s rule
from February 1991 until his subsequent overthrow by the Haitian military 8 months
later, in September 1991.
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Contents
Violent and Authoritarian Traditions...................................1
Long-Standing Racial Conflict...................................1
U.S. Occupation of Haiti and the Duvalier Legacy....................2
Difficult Path Towards Democracy....................................3
A New Constitution Thwarted by Military-Dominated Governments......3
Civilian-Appointed Interim Government............................3
Election and Overthrow of the Aristide Government..................4
Aristide’s Human Rights Record..............................5
Role of the Military in the Democratic Process...................7
Appendix. A Brief Statistical Profile..................................9
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Haiti: Background to the 1991 Overthrow
of President Aristide
Violent and Authoritarian Traditions
Politics in Haiti have been generally violent and authoritarian, ever since Haiti
became an independent republic in 1804, when African-descended slaves revolted
against their French colonial masters. Between the end of the rule of Toussaint
Louverture (leader of the slave rebellion) in 1803, and Francois Duvalier, founder of
the 30-year dictatorship that fell in 1986 — both of whom declared themselves
president for life — were some 30 other despotic rulers. This legacy would appear
difficult to overcome. In addition, most of the traditional centers of power in Haiti,
such as the military, the Catholic and Protestant churches, the business sector, and
the traditional elite, find democratic reformist ideas threatening in the Haitian
context. The government apparatus is still staffed principally by Duvalierist
appointees, many of whom have resisted change during the numerous post-Duvalier
governments and will most likely continue to do so.
Long-Standing Racial Conflict
Haitian history is marked by conflict between two racial groups: the mulatto
elite and the majority blacks. The vast majority of Haitians are black, poor, illiterate
peasants. The mulattos established their economic power and elite status principally
by controlling the business sector. Both groups enjoyed periods of political
dominance. Black rulers generally emphasized Haiti’s African roots and traditions,
including the African-based folk religion, voodoo. The mulatto elite emphasized a
European, Catholic tradition. Because of their education, mulattos held some
government positions even during black rule.
Race relations have improved in recent years: the once disdained Creole dialect
used by the majority is now an official language spoken by all Haitians; interracial
marriages are common; and the government is no longer as dominated by mulattoes.
But recent political events have again heightened racial and class tensions within
Haiti. The poor black majority’s only access to power has been through public
protests, when tolerated, and the recent elections. The mulatto elite wields most of
the economic and political power in Haiti, and generally resists dramatic changes
toward a redistribution of wealth and privilege to improve the lot of the poor
majority.
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U.S. Occupation of Haiti and the Duvalier Legacy
For much of this century, Haitian history was marked by occupation government
or the authoritarian Duvalier regime. The United States intervened in Haiti in 1915
to stop civil strife and prevent Germany from establishing a foothold there. By mid-
August, 1915, there were more than 2,000 U.S. Marines in Haiti.1 The Marines
stayed until 1934, overseeing public works, tax collection, treasury management, and
the development of a native Haitian Constabulary which was Haiti’s first professional
military force. Some of these contributions were welcome and much needed. But
the U.S. presence was also deeply resented as an affront to Haitian sovereignty.
Many Haitians charged the United States with discriminating against blacks by
placing mulattoes in positions of power.
By 1932, the U.S. withdrawal from Haiti was well underway during the
Administration of Herbert Hoover. Because of growing concerns about the effects
of the occupation, President Hoover had appointed a commission 1930 to study the
U.S. involvement in Haiti. The commission concluded that while the occupation had
brought about material improvements to Haiti, the U.S. occupation also excluded
Haitians from positions of real authority in the government and the constabulary.
Under President Franklin Roosevelt, a disengagement agreement was signed in
August 1933, and the last contingent of U.S. Marines left Haiti in August 1934.2
Francois Duvalier and his son Jean-Claude ruled Haiti for nearly 30 years,
leaving behind a legacy of repression and corruption. Francois, or “Papa Doc,”
Duvalier became President in 1957 through elections marred by numerous
irregularities. Although Duvalier originally ran on a platform calling for political
liberty and social reform, within a year he had established himself as a dictator.
Under his rule, arbitrary imprisonment, torture, and unexplained deaths became
commonplace. The Duvaliers’ private militia, the Tontons Macoutes, carried out
most of this repression. The Macoutes, Creole for “bogeymen,” were loosely
organized armed gangs enlisted by the Duvaliers to eliminate opposition to their rule
through violence and extortion. The Macoutes also served to counterbalance the
army’s power, which the Duvaliers kept in check to prevent military coups.3 In 1964,
the elder Duvalier had the constitution amended to make himself president-for-life.
In 1971, three months before his death, he had it amended again so that he could
name his 19-year-old son Jean-Claude president-for-life.
In the 1980s, “Baby Doc” Duvalier’s marriage to a prominent mulatto and their
opulent lifestyle stirred up much resentment among the poor black majority who
lived in absolute poverty. In addition, fiscal corruption was rampant and widely
recognized in Jean-Claude’s government. As popular dissatisfaction rose, his regime
grew increasingly repressive. In the face of massive popular demonstrations and
1 Logan, Rayford W. Challenge and Response in Internal Conflict. Washington: Center for
Research in Social Systems. September 1968. p. 36.
2 Haggerty, Richard A. ed. Dominican Republic and Haiti, country studies. Washington,
U.S. Government Printing Office, 1991. pp. 224-226.
3 See Haggerty. pp. 232-234.
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pressure from abroad, Jean-Claude Duvalier fled the country for France on February

7, 1986. The United States encouraged and helped arrange his departure.


Difficult Path Towards Democracy
A New Constitution Thwarted by
Military-Dominated Governments
Aristide’s 1991 ouster ushered in the seventh government in the five and one-
half years since the young Duvalier’s departure. The first interim government was
a 6-man, military-dominated National Council of Government (CNG) that disbanded
the Tontons Macoutes and allowed the drafting of a new constitution. The new
constitution, which over 99 percent of Haitian voters reportedly approved in a
plebiscite, guaranteed personal liberties; distributed power among a president, a
Prime Minister, and two legislative houses; and transferred the police to the
department of justice. It also created an independent electoral council to oversee
elections leading to the inauguration of a civilian government in February 1988.
Members of the armed forces and anyone closely associated with the Duvalier family
dictatorship were barred from running for office. But Duvalierists, in collaboration
with the army, thwarted the November 1987 elections by mounting a violent
campaign that culminated in the killing of dozens of voters on election day; as a
result of the violence, the elections were suspended.
In January 1988, the CNG ran its own elections, widely viewed as rigged in
favor of Leslie Manigat, a long-exiled academic. But less than 6 months later, on
June 20, 1988, Manigat was ousted in a military coup when he tried to replace
officials and reform the government. Lt. General Henri Namphy, CNG president and
close friend of Papa Doc’s, seized power. During the 31 months that Namphy ran the
government (February 1986 to September 1988), human rights violations increased,
with numerous political killings. Namphy was succeeded by Lt. Gen. Prosper Avril,
who promised a transition to democracy. But under Avril’s regime, human rights
continued to be routinely violated, as reported by the U.S. State Department, human
rights groups, and others. Violent popular protests forced Avril to resign after 18
months.
Civilian-Appointed Interim Government
As a result, in March 1990, a civilian government was appointed with the
mandate of holding elections as soon as possible. A coalition of political and civic
organizations selected Ertha Pascal-Trouillot, the only woman on the Supreme Court,
as provisional President. A State Council was established with the objective of
giving policy guidance to the executive branch. The Council severed relations with
the executive branch, however, after the executive branch failed to consult the
Council or to take action against political violence. President Trouillot headed what
was generally considered a weak civilian government, unable or unwilling to
effectively control the military. She established and cooperated with an independent
electoral council that organized successful elections at the end of the year.
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Election and Overthrow of the Aristide Government4
Hopes that Haiti would leave behind its authoritarian past were raised on
December 16, 1990, when Haitians elected a President, national legislators, and
municipal officials. Despite security concerns and lack of a democratic tradition,
voter turnout was estimated to be 70 percent on election day, and international
observers declared the elections generally free and fair. The elections were in part
the result of a strong democratic movement that had emerged in the late 1980s in
support of an elected government that would establish order in a non-repressive
manner. The democratic movement encompassed many elements of Haitian society,
including political parties as well as peasant, labor, human rights, and professional
organizations. Many observers also credited the success and relatively peaceful
nature of the elections to the heavy presence of international observers, whose
presence the government of Haiti had requested, and to the economic and material
support provided by many nations and international organizations.
Jean-Bertrand Aristide was elected President with 67.5 percent of the vote, and
was inaugurated on the fifth anniversary of the collapse of the Duvalier dictatorship.
A 37-year-old populist Roman Catholic priest, he was the most controversial of 11
candidates ruled eligible to run by the independent Provisional Electoral Council
(CEP). To his supporters, Aristide is a martyr, willing to risk his life to defend the
poor. An advocate of “liberation theology,” Aristide spoke out against Duvalier and
the military rulers who followed him. In September 1988, an armed group attacked
and burned Aristide’s church, killing 13 and wounding 70; surrounded by his
parishioners, Aristide escaped unharmed. To his detractors, Aristide is a potentially
dangerous demagogue, whose inflammatory oratory they say encourages the
rampages, known as dechoukajes, or “uprooting” in Creole, in which suspected
Tontons Macoutes are attacked or killed by angry mobs. Aristide reportedly denies
that his book, 100 Verses of Dechoukaj, condones violence. Nonetheless, the
Salesian religious order expelled him for preaching politics from the pulpit, including
what the order called “class struggle.”
When Aristide became a candidate, he toned down his revolutionary and anti-
U.S. rhetoric. Aristide previously opposed democratic elections in Haiti, arguing that
free and fair elections were impossible as long as Duvalierists still had a hold on
economic and political power. Nonetheless, he joined the race in response to former
Tontons Macoutes chief Roger Lafontant’s potential candidacy.
Lafontant was ruled ineligible to run for the presidency, and in early January
1991, he led an attempted coup against President Trouillot in an effort to prevent
Aristid, whom he called an “ultra-communist,” from taking office on February 7,

1991. Lafontant seized the national palace and tried to declare martial law. Instead,


the army arrested Lafontant and promised to have him tried in the civilian courts.
The popular celebration that followed turned violent as crowds hunted down and
lynched dozens of suspected Macoutes. Mobs also burned down the 220-year old
cathedral, in apparent retaliation for a homily by the Archbishop — whose relations
4 This section draws from various New York Times and Washington Post articles. For
specific details see Facts on File 1990 and 1991.
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with Aristide have long been tense — that warned of a coming “regime of
authoritarian politics.” Many foreign diplomats criticized Aristide for not
condemning the street violence quickly or forcefully enough.
President Aristide was faced with some of the most serious and persistent social,
economic, and political problems in the western hemisphere. After 8 months in
office, Aristide had received mixed reviews. He was credited with curbing crime in
the capital, reducing the number of employees in bloated state enterprises, and taking
actions to bring the military under civilian control. But some observers questioned
the new government’s commitment to democracy. Neither Aristide nor his Prime
Minister belonged to a political party, and leaders of other political parties criticized
him for not reaching out and establishing a spirit of cooperation among the
democratic elements. Many legislators, including some from Aristide’s own
coalition, protested the President’s appointment of Supreme Court judges and
ambassadors without consulting the Senate as required by the constitution. Aristide
later agreed to consult the legislature, but relations between the two branches
remained strained.
Aristide was also criticized for his attitude toward the judicial system. Lafontant
was tried in July 1991 for his role in the failed January coup attempt. Aristide called
for a life sentence — which Lafontant received — although the constitution limited
sentences to 15 years. Aristide declared the next day a national holiday. Many
observers expressed concern over the trial, saying it differed little from trials under
the Duvaliers: it lasted for over 20 consecutive hours, important witnesses were not
called, and the court appointed five lawyer trainees to defend Lafontant because even
his own lawyer felt it too dangerous to defend him.
Initially criticized for not having a clear plan, the Aristide government in July
1991 presented a macroeconomic reform and public sector investment plan to
representatives of several nations and international lending institutions, who lauded
the plan and pledged $440 million in FY1992 aid. Most of that aid was suspended
because of the coup that overthrew Aristide’s government on September 30, 1991.
Aristide’s Human Rights Record. In the area of respect for human rights,
President Aristide also had mixed reviews. He was criticized for appearing to
condone mob violence, but was also credited with significantly reducing human
rights violations while he was in office.
Some observers believe that as President, Aristide helped to polarize the
situation in Haiti by refusing to condemn violent acts of retribution, and holding out
the threat of mob violence against those who disagreed with him. For example,
Aristide refused to condemn the practice of “pere lebrun”, or burning someone to
death with a “necklace” consisting of a gasoline-soaked auto tire. After the former
head of the Tontons Macoutes was sentenced to life in prison, Aristide gave a speech
in which he noted that without popular pressure and the threat of “pere lebrun” in
front of the courthouse, the life sentence would not have been chosen.
Moreover, in a September 27, 1991 speech, Aristide appeared to threaten former
Tontons Macoutes with “pere lebrun.” Aristide reportedly said, “You are watching
all macoute activities throughout the country. We are watching and praying. We are
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watching and praying. If we catch one, do not fail to give him what he deserves.
What a nice tool! What a nice instrument! What a nice device! It is a pretty one.
It is elegant, attractive, splendorous, graceful, and dazzling. It smells good.
Wherever you go, you feel like smelling it. It is provided for by the Constitution,5
which bans macoutes from the political scene.” In exile Aristide condemned the
practice of necklacing.6
Observers contend that in the speech Aristide also threatened the bourgeoisie7
for not having helped his government enough. Some saw the speech as another
factor leading to his overthrow just days later, and maintain that members of the
bourgeoisie were financially supporting the coup leaders.
In a report on the Aristide government’s human rights record, Americas Watch
and two other human rights groups wrote:
It is unfortunate but understandable that Aristide’s speeches in support of
Pere Lebrun have overshadowed other speeches in which he advocated lawful
redress for abuse....President Aristide had a duty to refrain from any statement
that could be understood to support Pere Lebrun, and to speak out firmly and
consistently against this barbaric practice. His failure to fulfill this duty is a8
serious blemish on his human rights record.
The report also reflected the views of many in the international community
when it recognized President Aristide as the “sole legitimate Haitian head of state,”
elected with a two-thirds majority, an unusual mandate in the hemisphere. The report
further stated: “While we recognize the need to correct the human rights
shortcomings of the Aristide government ... we believe firmly that these failings
cannot be used to justify committing yet a further, serious human rights violation by
depriving the Haitian people of the right to elect their government.”9
Most human rights monitors credit the Aristide government with being the first
Haitian government to address the need to improve respect for human rights, and the
needs of the poor majority. They assert that progress made during his term was
undone by the military regime that followed. Most sources credit Aristide with
creating a much greater sense of security in Haiti than there had been in years. He
greatly reduced common crime in the city; the removal of the “chefs de sections,” or
sheriffs, many of whom had ruled rural Haiti through extortion and violence for
decades, brought greater security to the countryside as well. According to the State
5 Foreign Broadcast Information Service. Daily Report, Latin America. Aristide Address

27 Sep After Visit to UN. October 7, 1991, pp. 18-19.


6 Alexander Watson, Assistant Secretary of State for Inter-American Affairs at a briefing for
the House Foreign Affairs Committee, Subcommittee on Western Hemisphere Affairs.
October 20, 1993.
7 Eaton, William. “Haitian Coup Leader Meets OAS Delegates.” Los Angeles Times.
October 6, 1991. p. A15
8 Haiti: The Aristide Government’s Human Rights Record. Americas Watch, The National
Coalition for Haitian Refugees and Caribbean Rights. Nov. 1, 1991.
9 Ibid, p. 2.
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Department human rights reports for 1991 and 1992, there were no reports of
disappearances during Aristide’s term, and dozens in the months following the coup.
The number of political killings also rose dramatically after Aristide was ousted.
The September 1991 coup began just four days after Aristide addressed the
United Nations, an event he reportedly said marked the end of Haiti’s dark past of
dictatorship. The State Department estimated coup-related deaths at 300-500, while
Amnesty International estimated them to number over 1,500.
Role of the Military in the Democratic Process. Under the military-
dominated interim governments, the Haitian army frequently impeded the democratic
process. After the departure of the last military dictator in March 1990, however,
some observers believed there had been a transformation of the army to one
supportive of democracy. Throughout the 1990 electoral process, the 7,000-man
army proved itself capable of establishing and maintaining order. Several factors
accounted for the change, including attrition of anti-democratic elements with the
downfall of the various interim governments; the army’s inability to form a viable
government; a new generation of officers interested in reform and professionalization
of the armed forces; and growing domestic and international pressure for a civilian
democracy. Initially, the army accepted Aristide’s assertion of authority, including
his purge of the Haitian army high command. Brig. General Cedras, who oversaw
security for the December elections, was reportedly a reluctant participant in the
coup. But as its spokesman, he said Aristide was ousted for “meddling in army
affairs.” Some analysts argue the army does not want to relinquish control so that it
can continue to profit from contraband- and narcotics-trafficking.
In its attempts to implement provisions of the Haitian constitution that impose
civilian authority over the military, the Aristide government met significant army
resistance. For example, the constitution calls for the separation of the police from
the army, with the police under the command of the Ministry of Justice. The law also
mandates that cases involving military abuses against civilians be tried in civilian
courts, not by the military. The military had resisted previous efforts to execute those
laws. No military personnel were prosecuted for human rights abuses under any of
the interim governments. When he was overthrown, Aristide was opening an attack
on corruption, pressing reforms in the army, and creating a civilian police force.
The military’s trend toward improved human rights under the Aristide
government was reversed after the coup, according to the State Department’s 1991
human rights report. That and other human rights reports stated that the military used
violence to intimidate political opposition, popular organizations, the urban poor, and
the media.10
During the numerous interim governments as well as under Aristide’s rule,
many former members of the army and the Tontons Macoutes still had weapons and
10 For example, see Americas Watch. Return to the Darkest Days: Human Rights in Haiti
Since the Coup. December 1991; Lawyers Committee for Human Rights. Haiti: a Human
Rights Nightmare. 1992; Amnesty International. Haiti: Human Rights Held Ransom.
August 1992; and Committee to Protect Journalists. Bouch Pe: The Crackdown on Haiti’s
Media Since the Overthrow of Aristide. September 1992.
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terrorized the populace. Dealing in contraband, robbery, and extortion, they profited
from insecurity and chaos. None of the interim governments prosecuted perpetrators
of past human rights violations or sent consistent signals that Macoute violence
would not be tolerated. The public sometimes took matters into its own hands,
carrying out “popular justice” or summary public executions of suspected Macoutes.
The Aristide government has been charged with appearing to condone such tactics,
but was also credited with lowering the crime rate in the capital, and with detaining
many “terrorists”. After Aristide’s ouster, there was a resurgence of Tontons11
Macoutes activity.
11 See: U.S. Department of State. Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 1992.
February 1993. pp. 421-427; Americas Watch, et al. Haiti: The Aristide Government’s
Human Rights Record. November 1, 1991.
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Appendix. A Brief Statistical Profile
Area: 10,714 square miles (slightly larger than Maryland); occupies
the eastern half of the island of Hispaniola
Capital: Port-au-Prince
Population: 6.4 million
Language: French, spoken by only 10% of the population, and Creole,
spoken by the entire population.
Ethnic Groups: About 95% of African origin and the remaining 5% of mixed
African-European origin (mulatto) and European origin
Religions: About 80% is Roman Catholic, but a majority of this group also
practices Voodoo. Another 16% belong to numerous Protestant
groups.
Gross National
Product (GNP): $2.27 billion (1991)
GNP Real Growth: -0.6% (1980-1991)
GNP Per Capita: $370 (1991)
Real GNP Per
Capita Growth: -2.4% (1980-1991)
Life Expectancy
at Birth: 55 years (1990)
Adult Literacy: 47% (1990)
Infant Mortality
Rate (per 1,000
live births): 94
Sources: Central Intelligence Agency. World Factbook 1993; World Bank. World Development
Report 1993; World Bank. The World Bank Atlas, 1992.
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