Takings Decisions of the U.S. Supreme Court: A Chronology

CRS Report for Congress
Takings Decisions of the
U.S. Supreme Court:
A Chronology
Updated October 19, 2005
Robert Meltz
Legislative Attorney
American Law Division

Congressional Research Service ˜ The Library of Congress

Takings Decisions of the U.S. Supreme Court:
A Chronology
Summary
This report is a reverse chronological listing of U.S. Supreme Court decisions
addressing claims that a government entity has “taken” private property, as that term
is used in the Takings Clause of the Fifth Amendment. A scattering of related, non-
takings decisions is also included.
Under the Takings Clause, courts allow two very distinct types of suit.
Condemnation occurs when a government or private entity formally invokes its
power of eminent domain by filing suit to take a specified property, upon payment to
the owner of just compensation. By contrast, a taking action — our topic here —
is the procedural reverse. It is a suit by a property holder against the government,
claiming that government conduct has effectively taken the property notwithstanding
that the government has not filed a formal condemnation suit. A typical taking action
complains of severe regulation of land use, though the Takings Clause reaches all
species of property: real and personal, tangible and intangible. The taking action
generally demands that the government compensate the property owner, just as when
government formally exercises eminent domain.
The Supreme Court’s takings decisions reach as far back as 1870, and are divided
here into three periods. The modern period, from 1978 to the present, is defined by
the Court’s effort to make its indicia for regulatory takings more explicit, with uneven
success, and to develop ripeness standards. In the preceding period, 1922 to 1978, the
Court first announced the regulatory taking concept — that government regulation
alone, without appropriation or physical invasion of property, may be a taking if
sufficiently severe. During this time, however, it proffered little by way of regulatory
takings criteria. In the earliest period of takings law, 1870 to 1922, the Court saw the
Takings Clause as protecting property owners only from two particularly intrusive
forms of government action: outright appropriation and physical invasion. Regulatory
restrictions were tested against other legal theories and generally upheld.

Contents
I. Takings Law Today: Penn Central (1978) to the Present.................3
II. The Dawn of Regulatory Takings Law:
Pennsylvania Coal Co. (1922) to 1978............................11
III. Appropriations and Physical Takings Only: 1870 to 1922..............16

Takings Decisions of the U.S. Supreme
Court: A Chronology
Once in the constitutional wings, the Takings Clause of the Fifth Amendment
today stands center stage. No debate on the proper balance between private property
rights and conflicting societal needs is complete without it.
The reasons for the Takings Clause’s ascendancy are clear. Starting with the
advent of comprehensive zoning in the early twentieth century, federal, state, and local
regulation of private land use has become pervasive. Beyond comprehensive zoning,
recent decades have seen explosive growth in the use of historic preservation
restrictions, open-space zoning, dedication and exaction conditions on building
permits, nature preserves, wildlife habitat preservation, wetlands and coastal zone
controls, and so on. In the Supreme Court, the appointment of several conservative
justices since the 1970s has prompted a new scrutiny of government conduct vis-a-vis
the private property owner.
As a result, the Court since the late Seventies has turned its attention toward the
takings issue with vigor, clarifying some issues and raising new ones. Through the
1980s and 1990s, property owner plaintiffs scored several major victories; by and
large, the substantive doctrine of takings shifted to the right. Recent decisions,
however, have moved the analytical framework in a more government-friendly
direction, though it is too soon to discern whether this signals a lasting shift.
By way of background, the Fifth Amendment of the U.S. Constitution states:
“nor shall private property be taken for public use, without just compensation.” Until
the late nineteenth century, this clause was invoked only for condemnation: the
formal exercise by government of its eminent-domain power to take property
coercively, upon payment of just compensation. In such condemnation suits, there is
no issue as to whether the property is “taken” in the Fifth Amendment sense; the
government concedes as much by filing the action. The only question, typically, is
how much compensation must be paid.
Beginning in the late nineteenth century, the Supreme Court gave its imprimatur
to a very different use of the Takings Clause. When the sovereign appropriated or
caused a physical invasion of property, as when a government dam flooded private
land, the Court found that the property had been taken just as surely as if the sovereign
had formally condemned. Therefore, it said, the property owner should be allowed to
vindicate his constitutional right to compensation in a suit against the government.
In contrast with condemnation actions, then, such takings actions have the property
owner suing government rather than vice-versa, hence the synonym “inverse
condemnation actions.” The key issue in takings actions is usually whether, given
all the circumstances, the impact of the government action on a particular property
amounts to a taking in the constitutional sense.

In 1922, in the most historically important taking decision,¹ the Supreme Court
extended the availability of takings actions from government appropriations and
physical invasions of property to the mere regulation of property use. This critical
extension opened up vast new legal possibilities for property owners, and underlies
most of the Supreme Court’s takings decisions since 1922.
* * * * *
This report compiles only Supreme Court decisions addressing issues unique to
takings (inverse condemnation) actions, not those on formal condemnation or
property valuation. Thus the recent headline-grabbing Supreme Court opinion in Kelo
v. City of New London,² principally a formal condemnation case, is not included here.
On the other hand, a scattering of due process cases is interspersed where they address
property-use restrictions or have been cited by the Court as authority in its takings
decisions.
In the interest of brevity, we mention no dissenting opinions, and almost no
concurrences. Thus, the report does not reveal the closely divided nature of some
Supreme Court takings opinions.
Decisions are in reverse chronological order.

¹ Pennsylvania Coal Co. v. Mahon, 260 U.S. 393 (1922).
² 125 S. Ct. 2655 (2005).

I. Takings Law Today:
Penn Central (1978) to the Present
In 1978, the Supreme Court ushered in the modern era of regulatory takings law
by attempting to inject some coherence into the ad hoc analyses that had characterized
its decisions before then. In Penn Central Transportation Co. v. New York City, the
Court declared that whether a regulatory taking has occurred in a given case is
influenced by three principal factors: the economic impact of the regulation, the extent
to which it interferes with distinct (in most later decisions, “reasonable”) investment-
backed expectations, and the “character” of the government action. After Penn
Central, ad hocery in judicial taking determinations emphatically still remains, but
arguably is confined within tighter bounds.
The Court’s many takings decisions since Penn Central have developed the
jurisprudence in each of its main areas: ripeness, takings criteria, and remedy. As for
takings criteria, the Court announced several “per se taking” rules in the two decades
after Penn Central (see, e.g., Loretto and Lucas), though more recently it has again
been extolling the multifactor, case-by-case approach of that decision (see Palazzolo,
Tahoe-Sierra, and Lingle). In Lingle, one of its newest takings decisions, the Court
summed up the four types of takings claims it now recognizes:
a plaintiff seeking to challenge a government regulation as an
uncompensated taking of private property may ... alleg[e] a
“physical” taking, a Lucas-type “total regulatory taking,” a Penn
Central taking, or a land-use exaction violating the standards set
forth in Nollan and Dolan.
^C^a^s^e^A^c^ti^on^attack^ed^Hol^dⁱⁿ^g/^rati^on^al^e
^San^Rem^o^Ho^tel,^City^r^e^q^u^ir^em^en^{t th}^at^h^o^telier^Fed^e^r^a^{l f}^u^{ll f}^a^ith^an^d^cr^ed^{it statu}^t^{e (}^b^ar^rⁱⁿ^g^r^e^litig^atⁱ^oⁿ^o^f^issu^{es th}^at
^L^.^P^.^v^.^City^aⁿ^d^p^a^y^{$567,000 f}^{ee f}^o^r^h^a^v^e^been^res^o^lv^{ed by}^s^t^{ate cou}^r^ts^o^f^co^m^p^eten^{t j}^u^rⁱ^sd^ictioⁿ⁾^ad^m^its^o^f
^Co^unt^y^o^f^S^aⁿ^c^o^nve^r^tⁱ^{ng r}^e^si^d^e^ntⁱ^a^l^r^o^o^m^sⁿ^o^ex^cep^tioⁿ^allo^wⁱⁿ^g^r^e^litig^atioⁿⁱⁿ^f^e^d^e^r^a^l^co^u^r^{t o}^f^takⁱⁿ^g^s^claim^s
^F^r^an^ci^s^c^{o, 125 S}^.^t^o^t^o^urⁱ^s^t^room^s^,^uⁿ^d^erⁱⁿ^itially^litig^atedⁱⁿ^{state co}^u^r^t^p^u^r^s^u^aⁿ^t^to^"^s^{tate ex}^h^a^u^s^tioⁿ^"^rⁱ^p^eⁿ^e^ss
^C^t^{. 2491 (2005)}^ordin^aⁿ^{ce s}^eekⁱⁿ^g^{to pres}^erv^e^prerequⁱ^s^{ite of}^W^illiams^{on C}^ounty^,ⁱⁿ^f^r^a^pag^e^{8. C}^o^u^r^t^rej^ect^s
^s^u^ppl^y^of^af^f^o^rdabl^e^ren^t^al^arg^u^m^en^t^th^{at w}^h^en^ev^{er claim}^aⁿ^t^res^e^rv^es^hⁱ^s^f^e^{deral tak}ⁱⁿ^g^claimⁱⁿ
^ho^usiⁿ^g^s^t^{ate cou}^r^{t, f}^e^{deral cou}^r^ts^s^h^ou^{ld rev}ⁱ^ew^th^{e res}^e^rv^{ed f}^e^{deral claim}^de
ⁿ^o^v^o^{, reg}^a^rdles^s^of^w^h^{at is}^s^u^es^th^{e s}^t^{ate cou}^r^{t decided.}
^Li^ngl^e^v.^Che^v^r^oⁿ^{State s}^t^atu^t^{e lim}^itin^g^ren^t^th^at^N^o^t^a^ki^ng.^Rul^e^a^nno^unc^e^dⁱⁿ^Agins^,ⁱⁿ^fra^p^a^ge⁹^,^t^h^a^t^go^ve^rⁿ^m^e^nt
^U^.^S^.^A^.^In^{c., 125 S}^.^{oil com}^p^an^ies^m^a^y^ch^arg^e^r^e^g^u^l^atioⁿ^o^f^p^r^iv^{ate p}^r^o^p^e^r^t^y^{is a tak}ⁱⁿ^g^if^{it “}^d^o^e^{s n}^o^t^su^b^s^tan^tially
^C^t^{. 2074 (2005)}^ser^v^{ice sta}^tioⁿ^o^p^e^r^a^to^r^s^w^h^o^ad^v^aⁿ^{ce leg}^itim^ate^stateⁱⁿ^ter^e^{sts,” is n}^o^{t a v}^a^lid^takⁱⁿ^g^s^{test. T}^a^kⁱⁿ^g^s
^l^eas^{e s}^t^atⁱ^oⁿ^s^owⁿ^e^{d by}^oi^l^law^lo^o^k^{s at}^th^e^bur^dens^{a reg}^u^l^atⁱ^oⁿⁱ^m^pos^es^on^propert^y^.^T^h^u^s^{, t}^h^e
^co^m^p^anⁱ^e^{s, in}^o^r^d^e^r^to^h^o^ld^p^h^y^s^{ical tak}ⁱⁿ^g^{, to}^{tal tak}ⁱⁿ^g^,^an^d^{Penn C}^e^nt^r^a^l^te^{sts (}ⁱⁿ^fra^pag^e¹⁰⁾
^d^o^wⁿ^r^e^{tail g}^a^so^lin^{e p}^r^ices^each^aⁱ^m^s^t^o^iden^tif^y^g^o^v^e^rn^m^eⁿ^t^action^s^th^{at are “}^f^uⁿ^c^tion^a^lly
^eq^uⁱ^v^a^len^t^{” to}^{a d}ⁱ^r^{ect ap}^p^r^o^p^r^iatioⁿ^.^Iⁿ^coⁿ^t^r^a^st,^t^h^e^“^s^u^b^stan^tially
^adv^aⁿ^ces^”^tes^t^f^o^cu^s^e^s^on^th^{e reg}^u^l^ation^’^s^effectivenes^s^{, a du}^e-^proces^s^-
^lik^{e in}^qu^iry^.^Moreov^{er, as}^s^e^s^sⁱⁿ^g^th^{e ef}^fⁱ^cacy^of^reg^u^l^ation^s^is^{a tas}^k
^to^w^h^ich^co^u^r^{ts ar}^{e ill-}^su^ited^.

^C^a^s^e^A^c^ti^on^attack^ed^Hol^dⁱⁿ^g/^rati^on^al^e
^B^r^o^w^{n v.}^Le^ga^l^Sta^t^e’^s^u^s^{e of}ⁱⁿ^teres^t^earn^e^d^IOL^T^A^prog^ram^s^a^tis^fⁱ^es^“^p^u^b^lic^u^s^e”^requ^irem^en^{t of}^T^a^kⁱⁿ^g^s^C^l^au^s^e^,
^Fo^und.^o^f^b^y^sm^{all o}^r^s^h^o^r^t^-^liv^ed^gⁱ^v^eⁿ^t^h^{e com}^p^el^lⁱⁿ^gⁱⁿ^t^e^res^tⁱⁿ^provⁱ^dⁱⁿ^g^l^e^g^a^l^s^e^rvⁱ^ces^f^o^{r t}^h^e^poor.
^Was^hⁱⁿ^g^t^on^{, 538}^deposⁱ^t^s^of^tⁱ^t^l^{e com}^p^an^y^’^s^A^s^to^w^h^eth^e^r^th^er^{e w}^a^{s a tak}ⁱⁿ^g^,^{a p}^e^r^{se test lik}^{e th}^{at in}^Lo^retto^,ⁱⁿ^fra
^U^.^S^.^{216 (2003)}^clⁱ^eⁿ^t^s^’^f^uⁿ^d^s^t^o^s^u^pport^l^e^g^a^l^pag^e^8,^s^eem^s^appropri^a^t^e^{, an}^{d w}^e^as^s^u^m^e^s^u^ch^{a t}^a^kⁱⁿ^g^occu^{rred. Bu}^t
^s^e^rvⁱ^ces^f^o^{r t}^h^e^{poor —}^uⁿ^d^er^th^er^{e is still n}^o^coⁿ^s^titu^tioⁿ^a^l^vⁱ^o^l^atioⁿ^.^T^h^e^T^a^kⁱⁿ^g^s^Clau^{se p}^r^o^s^cr^ib^es
^In^t^e^res^t^oⁿ^L^a^w^y^ers^’^T^r^u^s^t^t^a^kⁱ^ngs^wⁱ^t^h^{out compens}^a^tion^{. IOL}^T^A^m^aⁿ^d^ates^u^s^{e of}^th^{e in}^teres^t
^A^ccouⁿ^t^s^(IOL^T^A^{) prog}^ram^oⁿ^l^y^w^h^en^{it co}^u^l^d^g^eⁿ^e^r^a^{te n}^oⁿ^e^{t in}^ter^e^{st f}^o^r^th^{e clien}^t^{, o}^wⁱⁿ^g^to
^admⁱⁿⁱ^s^t^rativ^{e cos}^t^s^.^T^h^u^s^{, th}^{e com}^p^en^s^a^tion^ow^{ed is}^zero.
^V^e^rⁱ^z^oⁿ^C^o^mmu^-^F^C^C^re^gul^a^tⁱ^o^ns^und^er^A^r^g^u^m^en^{t th}^{at h}ⁱ^sto^r^{ical co}^{sts sh}^o^u^ld^b^e^u^s^ed^to^av^oⁱ^d^th^{e p}^o^ssib^ility
ⁿⁱ^c^a^tⁱ^o^ns,^Iⁿ^c^.^v.^T^e^lec^o^m^m^uⁿⁱ^catioⁿ^s^A^c^{t o}^f^of^t^a^kiⁿ^g^s^doesⁿ^o^t^pres^en^t^{a s}^e^ri^ou^s^qu^es^tⁱ^oⁿ^.^In^cu^m^b^en^t^s^{do n}^o^t
^F^C^C^,^{535 U}^.^S^.⁴⁶⁷^{1996 prov}ⁱ^dⁱⁿ^g^t^h^at^ra^t^e^s^ar^g^u^e^th^{at an}^y^p^a^r^ticu^l^ar^r^a^{te is so}^uⁿ^j^u^s^{t as to}^b^e^coⁿ^f^iscat^o^r^y^,^b^u^t
⁽²⁰⁰²⁾^ch^arg^e^{d by}ⁱⁿ^cu^m^b^en^{t local}^g^eⁿ^e^r^a^{l r}^u^{le is th}^{at an}^y^q^u^estioⁿ^ab^o^u^{t th}^{e co}ⁿ^s^titu^tioⁿ^a^lity^o^f
^ex^ch^an^g^e^carrier^s^{to n}^e^w^r^a^tesettin^g^{is r}^a^ised^b^y^r^a^{tes, n}^o^{t r}^a^t^e^settin^g^m^e^th^o^d^s^{. No}^r^{is FCC’}^s
^com^p^e^t^itors^{are to be bas}^e^d^actioⁿ^p^l^aced^o^u^tsid^{e th}^{is ru}^{le b}^y^an^y^clear^sigⁿ^s^th^at^takⁱⁿ^g^s^w^ill^o^ccu^r
^on^f^o^rw^ard-^l^o^o^kⁱⁿ^g^cos^t^if^th^{e h}ⁱ^sto^r^ical-^c^o^s^{ts in}^ter^p^r^e^tatioⁿ^{is allo}^w^e^d^.
^m^e^t^h^o^dol^og^y^,^rat^h^er^t^h^aⁿ
^hⁱ^s^t^{orical cos}^t^s
^T^a^hoe-^Sⁱ^e^rra^B^u^il^dⁱⁿ^g^m^o^r^a^to^rⁱ^{a im}^p^o^s^ed^1981-^{1984 m}^o^rat^o^ri^{a are n}^o^t^{per s}^e^t^a^kⁱⁿ^g^s^{. T}^h^e^a^r^gum^en^t^t^h^at^a
^P^r^es^erv^a^tion¹⁹^81-^{1984 u}ⁿ^{til b}ⁱ^state^m^o^r^a^to^rⁱ^u^m^p^r^o^h^ib^itin^g^{all eco}ⁿ^o^mⁱ^{c u}^s^{e o}^f^{a p}^r^o^p^e^r^t^y^,ⁿ^o^m^a^tter^h^o^w
^Co^uncⁱ^l^,^Iⁿ^c^.^v.^ag^en^cy^cou^l^{d f}^o^rm^u^l^{ate n}^e^w^brief^l^y^,^is^a^per^s^e^takⁱⁿ^g^m^u^s^t^{be rej}^{ected. R}^a^th^{er, s}^u^ch^m^o^{ratoria are}
^Ta^h^o^e^R^e^gⁱ^oⁿ^a^l^regⁱ^on^al^l^aⁿ^d^-^u^s^e^pl^an^—^pl^u^s^to^be^an^aly^{zed u}ⁿ^d^{er th}^{e ad h}^o^{c balan}^cⁱⁿ^g^tes^t^of^{Penn C}^e^nt^r^a^l^,ⁱⁿ^fra
^P^l^aⁿⁿⁱ^{ng A}^g^eⁿ^c^y^,^f^r^{eeze on}^bu^ildin^g^perm^its^pag^e^{10. N}^eⁱ^t^h^er^Fⁱ^{rst E}ⁿ^g^lish^,ⁱⁿ^fra^pag^e^7,ⁿ^o^r^Lu^ca^s^,ⁱⁿ^fra^pag^e^6,
^{535 U}^.^S^.³⁰²^f^r^om^{1984 t}^o^{1987 u}ⁿ^d^er^s^u^pport^t^h^{e per s}^e^t^a^kⁱⁿ^g^arg^u^m^en^t^.^Aⁿ^d^t^h^e^“^p^arcel^as^a^w^h^ol^e”^ru^l^e
⁽²⁰⁰²⁾^cou^r^tⁱⁿ^j^uⁿ^c^tⁱ^oⁿ^ag^aiⁿ^s^t¹⁹⁸⁴^bars^s^e^g^m^eⁿ^t^a^tⁱ^oⁿ^of^{a parcel}^’^s^t^e^m^poral^di^m^eⁿ^sⁱ^oⁿ^,^precl^u^dⁱⁿ^g
^p^l^aⁿ^,^p^l^{us r}^e^s^t^rⁱ^c^tⁱ^o^{ns und}^e^r^coⁿ^s^id^er^atioⁿ^o^f^oⁿ^ly^th^{e m}^o^r^a^to^rⁱ^u^m^p^e^rⁱ^o^d^.^Fin^a^lly^{, “}^f^airⁿ^{ess an}^d
^{1987 pl}^an^j^u^s^tice”^an^d^th^eⁿ^eed^f^o^{r in}^f^o^rm^{ed lan}^d^-^u^s^e^planⁿⁱⁿ^g^s^u^{pport an}^{ad h}^o^c
^approach^h^e^{re. (Pos}^t^-^{1984 res}^t^ri^ctⁱ^oⁿ^sⁿ^o^t^addres^s^e^d.)
^P^a^l^azzo^l^o^v.^R^h^o^d^e^{State den}ⁱ^als^rej^e^c^tⁱⁿ^g^T^a^kⁱⁿ^g^claim^{is r}ⁱ^p^e^.^Gⁱ^v^eⁿ^state’^{s in}^ter^p^r^e^tatioⁿ^o^f^{its r}^e^g^u^l^atioⁿ^s^,
^Isl^aⁿ^d^{, 533 U}^.^S^.^dev^e^l^oper’^s^propos^al^s^t^o^fⁱ^l^l^th^{ere w}^a^sⁿ^o^am^big^u^ity^as^to^ex^ten^t^of^dev^e^lopm^en^{t (n}^on^{e) allow}^e^{d on}
^{606 (2001)}ⁱⁿ^{all o}^r^m^o^{st o}^f^p^rⁱⁿ^cip^a^lly^w^e^tlan^d^{s p}^o^r^tioⁿ^o^f^lo^{t. Sim}^ilar^l^y^,^v^a^lu^{e o}^f^u^p^lan^d^{s p}^o^r^tioⁿ^,^w^h^er^{e a}
^w^e^tlan^d^{lot adj}^acen^{t to coas}^tal^sin^g^l^{e h}^o^m^e^m^a^y^b^e^b^u^ilt,^w^a^s^also^settled^.^Hen^{ce, lo}^{t o}^wⁿ^e^rⁿ^eedⁿ^o^t
^pon^d^m^a^k^e^f^u^rth^e^{r application}^s^{to s}^a^tis^f^y^“fiⁿ^{al decis}ⁱ^on^{” requ}^irem^en^{t of}
^rⁱ^p^eⁿ^e^s^s^d^o^c^trⁱⁿ^{e. On}^th^{e m}^e^r^{its, a tak}ⁱⁿ^g^claim^{is n}^o^{t b}^a^r^r^ed^b^y^f^a^c^t
^th^{at property}^w^a^s^acquⁱ^{red af}^{ter ef}^f^ectiv^{e date of}^s^t^ate^reg^u^l^ation^.^Aⁿ^d,
^{a r}^e^g^u^l^atioⁿ^p^e^r^mⁱ^ttin^g^{a lan}^d^o^wⁿ^e^r^to^b^u^ild^{a su}^b^s^tan^{tial h}^o^u^s^{e o}ⁿ^a
²⁰^-^acr^e^p^a^r^cel^{is n}^o^{t a to}^{tal tak}ⁱⁿ^g^uⁿ^d^er^Lu^ca^s^,ⁱⁿ^fra^pag^e^6,^bu^t^m^u^s^t
ⁱⁿ^s^t^{ead be ev}^alu^a^{ted u}ⁿ^d^{er th}^e^{Penn C}^e^nt^r^a^l^tes^t^,ⁱⁿ^fra^pag^e^10.
^Cⁱ^ty^of^Mon^t^erey^City^’^s^f^a^ilu^r^e^to^ap^p^r^o^v^e^I^ssue^o^f^w^h^e^t^he^r^cⁱ^t^y^w^a^{s l}ⁱ^a^b^l^e^fo^r^t^a^ki^ng,^r^aⁱ^s^e^d^t^h^r^o^{ugh c}ⁱ^vi^l^rⁱ^ght^s
^v.^D^e^l^M^o^nt^e^pro^p^ert^y^owⁿ^e^r’^s^cl^ai^m^uⁿ^d^{er 42 U}^.^S^.^C^.^{§ 1983, w}^a^sⁱⁿ^t^hⁱ^s^cas^{e an}^e^sse^ntⁱ^a^l^l^y^f^act^-
^Duⁿ^e^s^at^dev^e^l^opm^en^t^pl^an^s^af^t^e^r^fⁱ^v^e^,^b^o^uⁿ^d^oⁿ^{e, an}^d^th^u^s^p^r^o^p^e^r^l^y^su^b^m^itted^b^y^dⁱ^strⁱ^{ct co}^u^r^{t to}^j^u^r^y^.^Su^it
^Mon^t^erey^{, L}^t^d.,^prog^res^sⁱ^v^e^l^y^s^caled-^b^ack^f^o^{r l}^e^g^a^l^relⁱ^e^f^uⁿ^d^er^s^ectⁱ^oⁿ¹⁹⁸³ⁱ^s^actⁱ^oⁿ^at^l^a^w^s^o^uⁿ^dⁱⁿ^gⁱⁿ^t^o^rt^{, an}^d
^{526 U}^.^S^.⁶⁸⁷^propos^al^s^a^ccom^m^odatⁱⁿ^gⁱ^s^t^{hus w}ⁱ^t^hⁱⁿ^j^u^r^y^gua^r^a^nt^e^eⁱⁿ^Se^ve^nt^{h A}^m^eⁿ^d^m^eⁿ^t^.^A^l^so^“r^o^ugh
⁽¹⁹⁹⁹⁾^city^’^s^p^r^o^g^r^e^ssiv^e^ly^lo^w^e^r^proportion^a^lity^{” s}^t^an^{dard of}^Do^laⁿ^,ⁱⁿ^fra^page⁵^,ⁱ^sⁿ^o^t^appropri^a^t^e
^dev^e^l^opm^en^t^caps^t^a^ki^{ngs t}^e^st^.^I^t^w^a^s^d^e^si^gne^d^t^o^a^d^d^r^e^{ss e}^x^a^c^tⁱ^o^{ns o}ⁿ^d^e^ve^l^o^p^m^eⁿ^t
^permⁱ^t^s^{, n}^o^t^,^as^h^e^{re, den}ⁱ^al^s^of^dev^e^l^opm^en^t^.

^C^a^s^e^A^c^ti^on^attack^ed^Hol^dⁱⁿ^g/^rati^on^al^e
^Ea^s^t^e^r^{n En}^ter-^Fed^e^r^a^{l statu}^t^e^r^e^q^u^irⁱⁿ^g^C^o^a^l^Iⁿ^d^u^s^t^r^y^R^e^tⁱ^r^e^e^H^e^a^l^t^h^B^eⁿ^e^fⁱ^t^of¹⁹⁹²ⁱ^s^uⁿ^c^oⁿ^s^titu^tioⁿ^a^{l as}
^p^r^{ises v}^.^A^p^f^e^l,^c^o^m^p^an^y^to^f^uⁿ^d^h^ealth^{applied to Eas}^t^ern^.^In^opinⁱ^on^accom^p^an^yⁱⁿ^g^j^u^dg^m^eⁿ^t^{, f}^o^u^r^j^u^s^t^ices
⁵²⁴^U^.^S^.⁴⁹⁸^ben^e^fⁱ^t^s^of^mⁱⁿ^e^{r w}^h^o^w^o^rk^ed^fⁱⁿ^d^t^a^kⁱⁿ^g^becau^s^e^s^t^at^u^t^{e i}^m^pos^es^s^e^v^e^{re ret}^r^oactⁱ^v^{e l}ⁱ^a^bility^on^a
⁽¹⁹⁹⁸⁾^f^o^{r it decades}^{earlier, w}^h^ere^lim^ited^{class o}^f^p^a^r^ties^th^at^co^u^l^dⁿ^o^{t h}^a^v^e^an^ticip^ated^th^{e liab}^ility^{, an}^d
^c^o^m^p^aⁿ^y^l^e^ft^mⁱⁿⁱ^{ng b}^u^si^ne^ss^th^{e ex}^ten^t^of^liability^is^s^u^bs^tan^tia^lly^dis^p^roportion^a^{te to th}^{e com}^p^an^y^’^s
^b^e^f^o^r^e^p^r^o^m^{ise o}^f^lif^etim^e^e^x^p^e^rⁱ^eⁿ^c^eⁱⁿ^mⁱⁿⁱ^ng^fi^e^l^d^.^T^hⁱ^s^p^oⁱ^nt^{s t}^o^a^t^a^ki^{ng und}^e^r^{Penn C}^e^nt^r^a^l
^b^eⁿ^e^f^{its in}^c^o^l^l^e^c^tⁱ^v^e^test,ⁱⁿ^fra^pag^e^{10. A}^l^s^o^{, rem}^e^dy^f^o^{r t}^a^kⁱ^ng^b^a^s^e^{d on}^g^eⁿ^e^ralⁱ^zed
^ba^rg^ainⁱⁿ^g^ag^reem^en^ts^m^oⁿ^e^tary^liability^isⁱⁿ^v^a^lidation^ra^th^er^th^an^com^p^en^s^a^tion^,^s^u^pportin^g
^becam^{e ex}^{plicit in}¹⁹⁷⁴^j^u^rⁱ^sd^ictioⁿⁱⁿ^dⁱ^strⁱ^{ct co}^u^r^t.
^R^e^m^aⁱⁿⁱⁿ^g^j^u^s^tⁱ^{ce s}^u^pportⁱⁿ^g^j^u^dg^m^eⁿ^t^s^eesⁱⁿ^s^t^ead^a^s^u^bs^t^aⁿ^tⁱ^v^e
^du^{e proces}^s^vⁱ^ol^atⁱ^oⁿ^.
^P^h^illi^p^s^v^.^State’^s^u^s^{e of}ⁱⁿ^ter^e^s^t^earn^e^d^Iⁿ^ter^e^st^{is p}^r^o^p^e^r^t^y^o^f^clien^t^{s, n}^o^{t state. Desp}^{ite f}^{act th}^{at in}^ter^e^{st w}^o^u^l^d
^W^a^shi^ngt^oⁿ^Le^ga^l^oⁿ^s^m^a^l^l^o^r^sh^o^r^t-^liv^edⁿ^o^{t ex}^{ist b}^u^{t f}^o^r^I^O^L^T^A^p^r^o^g^r^a^m^,^state’^{s r}^u^{le th}^{at “}ⁱⁿ^t^er^{est f}^o^llo^w^s
^Fo^und^a^tⁱ^o^n,⁵²⁴^d^e^p^o^s^{its o}^f^law^y^er^s’^clien^t^s’^p^rⁱⁿ^cip^a^{l” m}^u^{st b}^e^f^o^llo^w^e^d^.^No^r^canⁱⁿ^ter^e^{st b}^e^r^e^g^a^r^d^ed^{as m}^e^r^e
^U^.^S^.^{156 (1998)}^f^uⁿ^d^s^t^o^s^u^pport^l^e^g^a^l^s^e^rvⁱ^ces^go^ve^rⁿ^m^e^nt^-c^r^e^a^t^e^d^va^l^u^e^.^Re^m^a^nd^e^d^fo^r^d^e^cⁱ^si^oⁿ^oⁿ^w^h^e^t^he^r^t^a^ki^ng
^f^o^{r t}^h^{e poor}^—^uⁿ^d^{er In}^t^e^res^t^occu^rred.
^on^L^a^w^y^ers^’^T^r^us^{t A}^ccouⁿ^t^s
^(IO^L^T^A⁾^prog^ram
^Sui^t^u^m^v.^T^a^ho^e^A^g^eⁿ^c^y^{’s b}^a^{n o}ⁿ^ne^w^l^a^nd^T^a^ki^{ng c}^l^aⁱ^mⁱ^s^rⁱ^p^e^d^e^spⁱ^t^e^p^l^aⁱ^ntⁱ^{ff’s no}^t^ha^vi^{ng a}^p^p^lⁱ^e^d^fo^r^T^R^P^A
^Re^gi^oⁿ^a^l^P^l^aⁿⁿⁱ^ng^c^o^ve^r^a^geⁱⁿ^“St^r^e^a^m^E^nvi^-^approv^al^of^h^e^{r s}^a^l^e^of^t^r^an^s^f^errabl^{e dev}^e^l^o^pm^en^t^ri^g^h^t^s^(T^D^R^s⁾^.
^A^g^en^cy^{, 520 U}^.^S.^r^o^nm^eⁿ^t^Zo^ne^s,^”^und^e^r^w^hⁱ^c^h^“^Fⁱⁿ^{al decis}ⁱ^on^{” requ}^irem^en^{t of}^W^illiams^{on C}^ounty^,ⁱⁿ^fra^pag^e^{8, does}
^{725 (1997)}^pl^aiⁿ^tⁱ^f^f^w^a^s^barre^d^f^r^omⁿ^o^{t em}^brace^s^u^c^h^T^R^P^A^approv^{al, s}ⁱⁿ^{ce parties}^ag^{ree on}^T^D^R^s^to
^b^u^ildⁱⁿ^g^h^o^m^e^oⁿ^r^e^sid^eⁿ^tial^w^h^ich^p^l^ain^tif^f^{is en}^titled^an^dⁿ^o^dⁱ^scr^e^tioⁿ^r^e^m^aⁱⁿ^s^f^o^r^T^R^P^A^{. T}^D^Rs’
^lo^t^v^a^lu^{e h}^e^r^e^{is sim}^p^ly^aⁿⁱ^s^su^{e o}^f^f^{act, w}^h^ich^co^u^r^{ts r}^o^u^tin^ely^r^e^so^lv^e
^w^ith^o^u^{t b}^eⁿ^e^f^{it o}^f^{a m}^a^r^k^{et tr}^an^sactioⁿ^.
^B^a^b^b^{itt v}^.^Yo^u^p^ee,^F^e^deral^s^t^at^u^t^e’^s^ban^on^T^a^kⁱⁿ^g^occu^rred.^T^h^{e am}^en^dm^en^t^,^m^a^{de i}ⁿ^{1984, di}^{d n}^o^t^cu^{re t}^a^kⁱⁿ^g
⁵¹⁹^U^.^S^.²³⁴^des^cent^{or dev}ⁱ^s^e^of^s^m^al^l^th^at^H^odel^{v. Ir}^vi^ng^,ⁱⁿ^fra^pag^e^{7, f}^o^uⁿ^dⁱⁿ^pre-^am^en^dm^en^t^v^e^rsⁱ^oⁿ^of
⁽¹⁹⁹⁷⁾ⁱⁿ^ter^e^{sts in}^allo^tt^e^d^Iⁿ^dⁱ^an^s^t^atu^t^{e. A}^m^en^dm^en^{t n}^a^rrow^{ed ban}^on^ly^as^reg^a^rdsⁱⁿ^com^e^-^p^rodu^cin^g
^l^a^nd^—^a^s^b^a^{n w}^a^{s na}^r^r^o^w^e^d^ab^ility^o^f^th^{e lan}^d^{, n}^o^{t its v}^a^lu^{e. Mo}^r^e^im^p^o^r^tan^t^{, am}^en^d^m^eⁿ^t’^s
^by^am^en^dm^en^t^allo^w^aⁿ^{ce o}^f^d^e^vⁱ^{se to}^cu^r^r^en^{t o}^wⁿ^e^r^sⁱⁿ^sam^e^p^a^r^{cel still o}^f^f^eⁿ^d^s
^H^odel^by^con^tin^uⁱⁿ^g^{to “}^s^ev^erely^res^t^{rict[]” In}^dian^’^s^rig^h^t^{to direct}
^des^cen^t^of^hⁱ^s^propert^y^.
^B^eⁿⁿⁱ^s^v.^F^o^rf^ei^t^u^{re of}^{car, ow}ⁿ^e^d^No^takⁱⁿ^g⁽^o^f^wⁱ^f^e^’^s^j^oⁱⁿ^{t in}^ter^e^stⁱⁿ^car⁾^.^T^o^b^e^su^r^e^{, w}ⁱ^f^e^h^a^dⁿ^o^p^r^io^r
^Mich^ig^an,⁵¹⁶^j^oⁱⁿ^tly^b^y^p^l^ain^tif^f^an^d^h^e^r^kno^w^l^e^d^ge^o^f^husb^a^nd^{’s p}^l^a^nne^d^use^o^f^c^a^r^.^B^u^t^go^ve^rⁿ^m^e^nt^m^a^y^no^t
^U^.^S^.^{442 (1996)}^husb^a^nd^,^b^e^c^a^u^s^e^o^f^be^requ^ired^{to com}^p^en^s^a^{te an}^owⁿ^e^{r f}^o^{r property}^w^h^ich^it^h^a^s^already
^h^u^s^b^aⁿ^d^’^s^ille^g^a^l^s^e^x^u^a^l^law^f^u^lly^acq^uⁱ^r^e^d^uⁿ^d^er^au^th^o^r^ity^o^t^h^e^r^t^h^aⁿ^e^mⁱⁿ^en^{t d}^o^m^ain^.^T^h^en^,
^activ^ityⁱⁿ^car^to^o^,^th^{e cases au}^th^o^r^izin^g^f^o^r^f^eitu^r^e^ar^{e “}^t^o^o^fⁱ^r^m^ly^fⁱ^x^e^d^”^to^b^eⁿ^o^w
^dis^p^laced.
^Do^lan^v^.^City^o^f^C^oⁿ^d^itioⁿ^s^im^p^o^s^ed^b^y^city^T^a^kⁱⁿ^g^o^ccu^r^r^e^d^.^W^h^{ile g}^r^een^w^a^y^d^e^dⁱ^catioⁿ^coⁿ^d^itioⁿ^r^a^tioⁿ^a^lly
^Tⁱ^g^a^{rd, 512}^U^.^S^.^f^o^r^g^r^an^tin^g^b^u^ildⁱⁿ^g^p^e^r^m^it,^adv^aⁿ^{ced a pu}^rpos^{e of}^permⁱ^t^s^c^h^e^m^e^(fl^{ood prev}^en^tⁱ^oⁿ⁾^{, requ}ⁱ^rⁱⁿ^g
^{374 (1994)}^r^e^q^uⁱ^rⁱⁿ^g^ap^p^lican^{t to}^lan^dow^ne^r^t^o^a^llow^pu^{blic acces}^s^{to g}^r^een^w^a^y^{did n}^o^{t. Hen}^{ce, latter}
^dedi^cat^{e pu}^blⁱ^c^gr^een^w^a^y^vⁱ^o^l^ated^“ⁿ^atu^r^{e o}^f^th^{e p}^e^r^m^{it co}ⁿ^d^itioⁿ^”^takⁱⁿ^g^cr^iterⁱ^oⁿⁱⁿ^No^llaⁿ^,
^a^l^on^g^s^t^ream^an^{d adj}^acen^tⁱⁿ^fra^p^a^g^e⁶^.^O^t^h^e^r^coⁿ^d^itioⁿ^,^th^{at p}^a^th^w^a^y^b^e^d^e^dⁱ^cated^{, w}^a^{s n}^o^t
^bⁱ^k^e^/p^ed^estr^ian^p^a^th^w^a^y^sho^w^{n b}^y^cⁱ^t^y^t^oⁱ^m^p^o^s^e^b^u^r^d^eⁿ^oⁿ^a^p^p^lⁱ^c^aⁿ^t^t^h^a^t^w^a^s^“^r^o^ughl^y
^proportⁱ^oⁿ^a^l^”^t^oⁱ^m^pact^of^applⁱ^can^t^’^s^propos^{ed proj}^ect^on^com^m^uⁿⁱ^t^y^.
^Hen^{ce, it v}ⁱ^olates^t^h^e^“deg^{ree of}^bu^rden^{” tak}ⁱⁿ^g^criterion^th^{at C}^o^u^r^t
^a^nno^unc^e^s^he^r^e^.^A^l^so^,^b^u^r^d^eⁿ^o^f^p^r^o^o^fⁱ^s^oⁿ^go^ve^rⁿ^m^e^nt^t^o
^d^e^m^o^nst^r^a^t^e^“r^o^{ugh p}^r^oportion^a^lity^.”

^C^a^s^e^A^c^ti^on^attack^ed^Hol^dⁱⁿ^g/^rati^on^al^e
^Co^nc^r^e^te^Pⁱ^p^e^&^Fed^e^r^a^{l statu}^t^{e r}^e^q^u^irⁱⁿ^g^th^at^{No tak}ⁱⁿ^g^.^T^a^kⁱⁿ^g^claim^isⁿ^o^{t aided by}^f^{act th}^{at collectiv}^{e barg}^ainⁱⁿ^g
^Produ^ct^s^,^In^{c. v.}^em^pl^oy^{er w}^h^o^wⁱ^t^h^d^r^a^w^s^ag^r^eem^en^{t p}^r^ed^atin^g^statu^t^{e p}^r^o^t^ecte^d^em^p^l^o^y^er^f^r^o^m^liab^ility^to^p^l^an
^Const^r^uc^tⁱ^oⁿ^f^r^o^m^m^u^lti-^em^p^l^o^y^er^p^eⁿ^s^ioⁿ^bey^oⁿ^d^s^p^ecifⁱ^{ed con}^t^ribu^tion^s^.^T^h^ree-^f^actor^{Penn C}^e^nt^r^a^l^test,ⁱⁿ^fra
^L^a^borers^Pen^sⁱ^oⁿ^pl^an^pay^{a f}ⁱ^x^e^{d debt}^t^o^pl^an^p^a^ge¹⁰^,^d^o^e^{s no}^t^p^oⁱ^nt^t^o^t^a^ki^ng:⁽¹⁾^go^ve^rⁿ^m^e^nt^a^c^tⁱ^oⁿ^m^e^r^e^l^y
^T^r^u^s^t^,^{508 U}^.^S^.^ad^j^u^sted^b^eⁿ^e^f^{its an}^d^b^u^r^d^en^s^o^f^ecoⁿ^o^mⁱ^{c lif}^{e; (}²⁾^w^ith^d^r^aw^{al liab}^ility
^{602 (1993)}^w^a^sⁿ^o^t^di^s^p^roportⁱ^oⁿ^a^t^e^;^an^d⁽³⁾^gⁱ^v^eⁿ^l^oⁿ^g^s^t^aⁿ^dⁱⁿ^g^f^e^deral^reg^u^l^atⁱ^oⁿ
ⁱⁿ^pen^s^ion^fⁱ^{eld, em}^ploy^{er lack}^ed^reas^on^{able ex}^pectation^{it w}^o^u^l^{d n}^o^t
^b^e^f^aced^w^ith^liab^ility^f^o^{r p}^r^o^m^ised^b^eⁿ^e^f^its.
^L^u^cas^v^.^S^o^ut^h^D^e^v^e^l^opm^en^t^banⁱ^m^pos^{ed on}^Go^v^e^rⁿ^m^eⁿ^t^r^e^g^u^l^atioⁿ^o^f^lan^d^th^{at co}^m^p^l^e^tely^elimⁱⁿ^{ates eco}ⁿ^o^mⁱ^c
^Car^o^liⁿ^a^C^o^astal^v^acant^lots^uⁿ^d^{er s}^t^ate’^s^u^s^{e is}^a^p^e^{r se}^takⁱⁿ^g^,^ev^en^w^h^en^th^{e leg}ⁱ^s^l^atu^r^e^as^s^e^rts^a^prev^en^tion^-^of^-
^C^o^uⁿ^cⁱ^l^,^{505 U}^.^S^.^b^each^f^r^on^{t m}^aⁿ^a^g^e^m^eⁿ^t^h^a^rm^pu^rpos^{e. T}^h^{ere is}^{a p}^rⁱ^o^{r in}^qu^iry^,^h^o^w^e^v^e^{r, as}^{to w}^h^eth^e^r
^{1003 (1992)}^sta^t^ute^propos^{ed u}^s^{e is}ⁱⁿ^h^e^ren^tⁱⁿ^lan^dowⁿ^e^r’^s^{title u}ⁿ^d^{er “}^b^ackgr^ouⁿ^d
^prin^ciples^of^th^{e s}^t^ate’^s^law^o^f^p^r^o^p^erty^an^{d n}^uⁱ^s^aⁿ^{ce” ex}^is^tin^g^w^h^en
^l^a^nd^w^a^{s a}^c^q^ui^r^e^d^.^I^f^no^t^,^t^h^e^r^eⁱ^s^no^t^a^ki^ng,^si^nc^e^r^e^gul^a^tⁱ^o^{n d}^o^e^{s no}^t
^t^a^ke^aⁿ^y^t^hi^{ng o}^w^ne^r^e^v^e^r^ha^d^.
^{Yee v}^.^C^ity^of^Mobi^l^e^h^o^m^e^r^eⁿ^t^-^c^on^t^r^ol^{No ph}^y^s^{ical tak}ⁱⁿ^g^occu^{rred. Neith}^{er s}^t^a^t^{e n}^o^{r local law}^on^its^f^ace
^Es^c^o^ndi^{do, 503}^ordin^aⁿ^{ce, com}^bⁱⁿ^{ed w}^ith^r^e^q^u^ir^{es lan}^d^o^wⁿ^e^r^to^d^e^dⁱ^{cate h}ⁱ^{s lan}^d^to^m^o^b^{ile h}^o^m^e^r^eⁿ^t^{als, n}^o^r
^U^.^S^.^{519 (1992)}^state^law^f^o^r^cⁱⁿ^g^m^o^b^{ile h}^o^m^e^o^v^er^ly^lim^{its h}ⁱ^{s ab}^ility^to^te^r^mⁱⁿ^{ate su}^ch^u^s^e.^P^e^{r se}^r^u^{le in}^Lo^retto^,
^par^k^o^wⁿ^e^{r to accept}ⁱⁿ^fra^pag^e^{8, appl}ⁱ^e^s^on^l^y^w^h^en^perm^an^en^t^ph^y^sⁱ^cal^occu^patⁱ^oⁿⁱ^s
^pu^rch^a^sers^of^m^obi^l^e^h^o^m^e^s^{coerced. C}^l^aim^th^{at procedu}^r^e^fo^{r ch}^an^gⁱⁿ^g^u^s^{e of}^park^is^ov^erly
ⁱⁿ^p^a^r^k^a^s^ne^w^t^e^na^nt^s^b^u^r^d^eⁿ^so^m^eⁱ^s^no^t^rⁱ^p^e^,^si^nc^e^p^l^aⁱ^ntⁱ^{ff ha}^s^no^t^go^ne^t^h^r^o^{ugh p}^r^o^c^e^d^ur^e^.
^Re^gul^a^t^o^r^y^t^a^ki^{ng c}^l^aⁱ^mⁱ^s^no^t^p^r^o^p^e^r^l^y^b^e^fo^r^e^Co^ur^t^,^sⁱⁿ^c^e^no^t
^su^b^s^u^m^ed^b^y^q^u^estioⁿ^sⁱⁿ^p^e^titioⁿ^f^o^r^cer^tio^r^a^rⁱ^.
^P^r^es^eau^{lt v}^.^IC^C^,^Fed^e^r^a^l^“^r^ails-^t^o^-^tr^ails”^P^r^em^atu^r^{e f}^o^{r C}^o^u^r^{t to ev}^alu^a^{te tak}ⁱⁿ^g^ch^all^eⁿ^g^e^{to s}^t^atu^t^{e, becau}^s^e
^{494 U}^.^S^.^{1 (1990)}^st^a^t^ut^e^,^und^e^r^w^hⁱ^c^{h unuse}^d^e^v^en^if^{it cau}^{ses tak}ⁱⁿ^g^s^o^f^r^e^v^e^r^s^ioⁿ^a^r^yⁱⁿ^ter^e^{sts, co}^m^p^en^satioⁿ^is
^rai^l^r^{oad ri}^g^h^t^s^{of w}^a^y^are^av^{ailable u}ⁿ^d^{er T}^u^ck^{er A}^c^t⁽^a^ut^h^o^rizin^g^s^u^its^ag^ain^s^{t U.S. f}^o^r
^con^v^e^rte^d^to^recreation^a^l^c^o^m^p^eⁿ^sa^tⁱ^oⁿ⁾^.^N^o^t^hⁱ^{ng i}ⁿ^st^a^t^ut^e^sugge^st^{s t}^h^e^“una^m^bⁱ^guo^us
^tr^ail^sⁿ^o^tw^ith^stan^dⁱⁿ^gⁱⁿ^ten^tioⁿ^”^to^w^ith^d^r^aw^T^u^ck^er^A^c^{t r}^e^m^e^d^y^w^h^ich^th^{is Co}^u^r^{t r}^e^q^u^ir^es.
^r^e^ve^r^sⁱ^o^na^r^y^p^r^opert^y^F^o^{r ex}^am^pl^{e, C}^oⁿ^g^r^es^s^’^ex^pres^s^e^{d des}ⁱ^{re t}^h^at^prog^ram^operat^e^at^“^l^ow
^inte^r^e^{sts und}^e^r^sta^t^e^la^w^c^o^s^t^”^mⁱ^g^h^t^m^e^r^e^l^y^r^e^f^l^e^c^tⁱ^t^s^r^e^je^c^tⁱ^oⁿ^o^f^a^m^o^r^e^a^m^b^itio^u^s^f^e^d^e^r^a^l
^prog^ram^,^rath^{er th}^an^w^ith^draw^{al of}^T^u^ck^{er A}^c^{t rem}^e^dy^.
^Un^{ited States}^v^.^S^t^at^u^t^ory^1-^1/^2%^dedu^ctⁱ^oⁿ^{No ta}^kⁱⁿ^g^.^1-^{1/2% dedu}^ction^is^{a reas}^on^{able “}^u^s^e^{r f}^{ee” in}^ten^d^{ed to}
^S^p^erry^C^o^{rp., 493}^f^r^om^aw^ards^of^Ir^aⁿ^-^Uⁿⁱ^t^e^d^r^e^im^b^u^r^s^{e Un}^ited^{States f}^o^r^{its co}^{sts in}^coⁿⁿ^ectioⁿ^w^ith^trⁱ^b^uⁿ^a^l.
^U^.^S^.^{52 (1989)}^States^C^l^aim^s^T^r^ibuⁿ^a^{l as}^A^m^o^uⁿ^t^o^f^f^eeⁿ^eedⁿ^o^{t b}^e^p^r^ecisely^tailo^r^e^d^to^u^s^{e th}^{at p}^a^r^t^y^m^a^k^e^{s o}^f
^r^e^im^b^u^r^s^em^en^{t to}^Un^ited^go^ve^rⁿ^m^eⁿ^t^s^e^rv^ices^{. Fee h}^e^{re is}ⁿ^o^{t s}^o^g^r^{eat as}^{to belie its}^claim^e^d
^States^f^o^{r ex}^pen^s^esⁱⁿ^cu^rr^e^d^s^t^atu^s^as^{a u}^s^{er f}^ee.
ⁱⁿ^th^{e ar}^b^itr^atioⁿ
^D^u^q^u^e^s^ne^Li^ght^{State ag}^en^cy^’s^ref^u^s^a^{l to}^{No tak}ⁱⁿ^g^.^Un^{der th}^{e circu}^m^s^t^an^ces^{, ov}^{erall im}^p^a^c^t^o^f^prev^en^tin^g
^Co^.^v.^B^a^r^a^sc^h,^a^llo^wⁱⁿ^clu^s^ioⁿ^o^f^co^{st o}^f^am^o^r^tizatioⁿ^o^f^su^ch^co^{sts w}^a^{s sm}^{all, an}^dⁿ^o^{t sh}^o^wⁿ^to^b^e^uⁿ^j^u^s^{t o}^r
^{488 U}^.^S.²⁹⁹^can^{celed n}^u^c^lear^plan^tsⁱⁿ^con^f^is^catory^.
⁽¹⁹⁸⁹⁾^u^tility^’^s^r^a^{te b}^a^se
^P^e^nne^l^l^v.^Ci^t^y^o^f^R^e^nt^c^o^nt^r^o^l^o^r^dⁱ^naⁿ^c^e^{Not ripe. T}^h^{ere w}^a^sⁿ^o^ev^iden^{ce th}^{at h}^a^rds^hⁱ^p^prov^is^ion^h^a^{d in}^f^act
^S^aⁿ^Jos^e^{, 485 U}^.^S^.^allowⁱⁿ^g^r^eⁿ^tⁱⁿ^creas^es^of^ev^{er been}^{relied u}^pon^{to lim}^{it a ren}^tⁱⁿ^creas^{e. A}^l^s^o^{, ordin}^aⁿ^{ce did n}^o^t
^{1 (1988)}^g^r^{eater th}^an^s^e^{t percen}^tag^e^r^e^q^u^ir^{e r}^eⁿ^t^lim^{it in}^ev^en^{t o}^f^ten^aⁿ^t^h^a^r^d^sh^ip^{, o}ⁿ^l^y^t^h^{at h}^a^r^d^sh^ip^b^e
^on^ly^af^t^e^r^con^s^iderin^g^con^s^idered.
^econ^o^mⁱ^{c h}^a^rd^s^h^{ip cau}^s^e^{d to}
^t^e^na^nt^s
^N^o^llan^v^.^State’^{s g}^r^an^{t o}^f^b^u^ildⁱⁿ^g^T^a^kⁱⁿ^g^o^ccu^r^r^ed^{. P}^e^r^m^{it co}ⁿ^d^itioⁿ⁽^r^eco^r^dⁱⁿ^g^easem^en^t)^dⁱ^dⁿ^o^t
^Calif^o^rⁿⁱ^{a Co}^astal^p^e^r^m^{it o}ⁿ^c^oⁿ^d^itioⁿ^p^r^o^p^e^r^t^y^sub^s^t^a^ntⁱ^a^l^l^y^a^d^va^nc^e^a^go^ve^rⁿ^m^e^nt^p^u^r^p^o^s^e^t^h^a^t^w^o^ul^d^j^u^stⁱ^f^y^d^eⁿⁱ^a^l
^C^o^m^m^’ⁿ^,⁴⁸³^U^.^S^.^owⁿ^e^r^s^r^e^cord^eas^em^en^t^of^perm^it^(en^s^u^rⁱⁿ^g^vⁱ^s^u^al^acces^s^{to beach}^{). W}^h^{ere s}^u^ch^lin^k^a^g^e^ex^is^ts^,
^{825 (1987)}^allo^wⁱⁿ^g^p^u^b^lic^to^tr^av^er^se^ho^w^e^ve^r^,^no^t^a^ki^{ng o}^c^c^u^r^s^e^v^eⁿⁱ^f^o^u^t^rⁱ^ght^a^p^p^r^o^p^rⁱ^a^tⁱ^o^{n o}^f^t^h^e
^beach^on^property^propertyⁱⁿ^f^rⁱⁿ^g^e^m^eⁿ^t^(h^{ere, th}^{e eas}^em^en^{t) w}^o^u^l^{d be a tak}ⁱⁿ^g^.

^C^a^s^e^A^c^ti^on^attack^ed^Hol^dⁱⁿ^g/^rati^on^al^e
^B^o^w^eⁿ^v^.^Gilliar^d^,^A^m^eⁿ^d^m^en^{ts to}^f^e^d^e^r^a^l^N^o^t^a^ki^ng.^Fa^mⁱ^l^y^ha^s^no^p^r^o^p^e^r^t^y^rⁱ^ght^t^o^c^o^ntⁱ^nue^d^w^e^l^f^a^r^e^b^e^ne^fi^t^s
^{483 U}^.^{S. 587}^w^e^lf^ar^e^p^r^o^g^r^a^m^r^e^su^ltin^gⁱⁿ^{at s}^a^m^e^lev^e^{l. C}^h^{ild receiv}ⁱⁿ^g^s^u^{pport pay}^m^en^ts^s^u^f^f^e^rsⁿ^o^s^u^bs^tan^tial
⁽¹⁹⁸⁷⁾^lo^w^e^r^b^eⁿ^e^f^{its an}^d^assigⁿ^m^eⁿ^t^eco^no^mⁱ^c^im^{pact, s}ⁱⁿ^{ce pay}^m^en^ts^w^e^{re lik}^ely^u^s^{ed f}^o^{r en}^{tire f}^a^m^ily
^of^chⁱ^l^d^s^u^pport^pay^m^en^t^s^t^o^bef^o^{re am}^en^dm^en^ts^.
^en^tir^{e f}^a^m^ily
^Fⁱ^r^s^t^En^g^lish^Iⁿ^terⁱ^m^o^r^dⁱⁿ^aⁿ^ce^p^r^o^h^ib^itin^g^I^f^a^r^e^gul^a^tⁱ^o^{n i}^s^he^l^d^t^o^ha^ve^t^a^ke^{n p}^r^o^p^e^r^t^y^,^T^a^ki^{ngs Cl}^a^u^se^r^e^q^uⁱ^r^e^s
^Ev^an^ge^lⁱ^cal^c^o^nst^r^uc^tⁱ^oⁿ^o^f^aⁿ^y^st^r^u^c^t^ur^e^s^co^m^p^en^satioⁿ^f^o^r^th^{e tim}^{e d}^u^rⁱⁿ^g^w^h^ich^r^e^g^u^l^atioⁿ^w^a^sⁱⁿ^ef^f^ect^—^i.e.,
^L^u^th^eran^C^h^u^r^ch^v^.ⁱⁿ^f^l^{ood zon}^e^uⁿ^{til d}^a^{te o}^f^r^e^p^{eal o}^r^j^u^dⁱ^{cial in}^v^a^lⁱ^d^a^tⁱ^oⁿ^.^Mer^eⁱⁿ^v^a^lid^atioⁿ^o^f
^C^o^unt^{y o}^f^L^o^s^r^e^g^u^l^atioⁿ^{is n}^o^{t a co}ⁿ^s^titu^tioⁿ^a^lity^s^u^f^fⁱ^cⁱ^eⁿ^t^r^e^m^e^d^y^.⁽^E^xⁱ^s^t^eⁿ^c^e^o^f
^Aⁿ^g^e^l^e^s^,^{482 U}^.^S^.^t^a^kⁱⁿ^g^as^s^u^m^e^{d by}^C^o^u^r^t^owⁱⁿ^g^t^o^pos^t^u^{re of}^cas^e.)
^{304 (1987)}
^H^o^d^e^l^v.^I^r^vⁱ^ng,^{Federal s}^t^atu^t^{e declarin}^g^th^at^T^a^ki^ng^o^c^c^u^r^r^e^d^.^St^a^t^ut^e^a^m^o^unt^{s t}^o^co^m^p^{lete ab}^r^o^g^a^tioⁿ^,^r^a^th^er^th^an
^{481 U}^.^S.⁷⁰⁴^sm^{all in}^ter^e^{sts in}^allo^tted^r^e^gul^a^tⁱ^o^n,^o^f^rⁱ^ght^t^o^p^a^{ss o}ⁿ^p^r^o^p^e^r^t^y^—^a^rⁱ^ght^w^hⁱ^c^h,^lⁱ^k^e^t^h^e^rⁱ^ght
⁽¹⁹⁸⁷⁾^Indⁱ^an^lan^d^m^a^yⁿ^o^{t des}^cen^d^{to ex}^clu^d^{e oth}^e^rs^{, is}^basⁱ^{c to th}^{e con}^{cept of}^property^.
^byⁱⁿ^t^e^s^t^acy^o^r^devⁱ^s^e^{, bu}^t
^m^u^s^t^es^ch^{eat to tribe}
^Ke^y^s^toⁿ^e^St^a^t^e^r^e^gul^a^tⁱ^o^{n r}^e^q^uⁱ^rⁱ^{ng t}^h^a^t^No^takⁱⁿ^g^.^Un^lik^{e sim}^ilar^an^ti-^su^b^s^id^en^{ce law}^h^e^l^d^{a tak}ⁱⁿ^gⁱⁿ
^Bⁱ^t^u^mⁱ^no^{us Co}^a^l^a^t^l^e^a^s^t⁵⁰^%^o^f^und^e^r^gr^o^und^Penns^yl^vani^{a C}^oal^C^o^.^,ⁱⁿ^fra^pag^e^{15, t}^h^{e s}^t^a^t^ut^e^he^{re h}^a^s^{a broad}
^A^ss’n^v.^{coal be lef}^tⁱⁿ^{place, w}^h^ere^pu^blⁱ^c^pu^rpos^{e an}^{d does}ⁿ^o^t^ru^l^e^ou^t^profⁱ^t^a^bl^{e m}ⁱⁿ^e^operatⁱ^oⁿ^.
^D^e^Ben^e^di^ctⁱ^s^{, 480}^mⁱⁿⁱ^{ng c}^o^a^l^mⁱ^ght^c^a^u^se
^U^.^S^.^{470 (1987)}^s^u^bs^iden^{ce dam}^a^g^e^to^s^u^rf^ace
^s^t^ru^ctu^r^es
^{FCC v. Flo}^r^id^a^Fed^e^r^a^{l r}^e^g^u^l^atioⁿ^r^e^q^u^irⁱⁿ^g^N^o^t^a^ki^ng.^P^e^{r se}^r^u^{le in}^Lo^retto^,ⁱⁿ^fra^pa^ge⁸^,^applⁱ^e^s^on^l^y^w^h^en
^P^o^w^e^{r C}^o^{rp., 480}^th^{at u}^tility^g^r^eatly^r^e^d^u^ce^r^eⁿ^t^p^e^r^m^aⁿ^en^{t p}^h^y^s^{ical o}^ccu^p^a^tioⁿ^{is co}^er^ced^{, u}ⁿ^lik^{e h}^e^r^e^w^h^er^{e u}^tility
^U^.^S^.^{245 (1987)}^ch^arg^e^{d cable T}^V^com^p^aⁿ^y^v^o^luⁿ^t^ar^ily^en^ter^e^dⁱⁿ^to^coⁿ^t^r^a^c^t^w^ith^cab^{le co}^m^p^an^y^.^Aⁿ^dⁿ^e^w^r^eⁿ^t
^f^o^r^attachⁱⁿ^g^{its cab}^{les to}^o^r^d^e^r^e^d^b^y^{FCC w}^a^{s no}^t^c^o^nfi^s^c^a^t^o^r^y^,^he^nc^e^no^t^a^t^a^ki^ng.
^u^tility^’^s^p^o^l^es
^Mac^D^oⁿ^ald,^C^ount^y^’^s^rej^ectⁱ^oⁿ^of^No^{t r}ⁱ^p^e^{. Dev}^e^lo^p^e^r^m^u^{st f}ⁱ^r^s^{t o}^b^t^ain^“^fⁱⁿ^{al an}^d^au^th^o^r^itativ^e
^So^m^m^e^r^&^Fr^ates^dev^e^l^ope^r^’^{s fi}^r^s^t^-^sub^mⁱ^t^t^ed^d^e^ter^mⁱⁿ^atioⁿ^”^o^f^th^{e ty}^p^e^an^dⁱⁿ^ten^s^ity^o^f^d^e^v^e^lo^p^m^eⁿ^{t th}^{at w}^{ill b}^e
^v.^Y^o^l^o^Co^unt^y^,^s^u^bdi^vⁱ^sⁱ^on^pl^at^p^e^r^m^itted^.^Co^uⁿ^t^y^’^{s r}^e^j^ectioⁿ^o^f^fⁱ^r^s^t-^su^b^m^itted^p^l^at^d^o^e^{s n}^o^{t p}^r^eclu^d^e
⁴⁷⁷^U^.^S^.³⁴⁰^p^o^ssib^ility^th^{at su}^b^m^issioⁿ^{s o}^f^sc^a^l^e^d^-^d^o^wⁿ^v^e^r^s^ioⁿ^o^f^p^r^o^j^{ect m}ⁱ^g^h^t
⁽¹⁹⁸⁶⁾ⁿ^o^{t be}^approv^{ed. A}^l^s^o^{, a cou}^r^{t can}ⁿ^o^{t determ}ⁱⁿ^{e w}^h^eth^e^{r com}^p^en^s^a^tion
ⁱ^s^“j^ust^”^untⁱ^lⁱ^t^kno^w^s^w^h^a^t^c^o^m^p^eⁿ^sa^tⁱ^o^{n st}^a^t^e^o^r^l^o^c^a^l^go^ve^rⁿ^m^e^nt
^w^{ill p}^r^o^v^id^e.
^B^o^w^e^{n v.}^P^u^b^lⁱ^c^S^t^at^u^t^ory^repeal^of^provⁱ^sⁱ^oⁿ^N^o^t^a^ki^ng.^Re^p^e^a^l^e^d^p^r^o^vⁱ^sⁱ^o^{n i}^s^no^t^“p^r^o^p^e^r^t^y^,^”^si^nc^e^Co^ngr^e^s^s
^A^g^en^ci^es^O^ppos^edⁱⁿ^f^e^d^e^ral-^s^t^{ate ag}^reem^en^ts^res^e^rv^{ed rig}^h^t^{to am}^en^{d ag}^reem^en^tsⁱⁿ^en^actin^g^g^o^v^e^rnⁱⁿ^g^s^t^atu^t^e,^an^d
^to^So^{cial Sec}^u^r^ity^allowⁱⁿ^g^s^t^ates^{to en}^{d s}^o^cial^cl^au^s^e^w^a^sⁿ^o^t^{a debt}^{or obl}ⁱ^g^atⁱ^oⁿ^of^U^.^S^.
^En^t^r^ap^m^eⁿ^t^,⁴⁷⁷^s^ecu^rity^cov^e^rag^e^of^s^t^{ate an}^d
^U^.^S^.^{41 (1986)}^{local em}^ploy^ees
^Coⁿⁿ^o^l^l^y^v.^Fed^e^r^a^{l act r}^e^q^u^irⁱⁿ^g^th^at^No^takⁱⁿ^g^.^T^a^kⁱⁿ^g^doesⁿ^o^{t occu}^{r ev}^ery^tim^{e law}^requ^ires^on^e^pers^on
^P^e^nsi^o^{n B}^eⁿ^e^fⁱ^t^em^pl^oy^e^r^{s w}^h^o^wⁱ^t^hdraw^{to u}^s^{e h}ⁱ^s^as^s^e^ts^f^o^{r ben}^e^f^{it of}^an^oth^e^{r. Nor can}^s^t^atu^t^{e be def}^{eated by}
^Gu^aran^ty^C^o^rp.,^f^r^o^m^a^m^u^lti-^em^p^l^o^y^er^pre-^exⁱ^s^tⁱⁿ^g^con^t^ract^provⁱ^sⁱ^oⁿ^prot^ectⁱⁿ^g^em^pl^oy^ers^f^r^om^fur^t^h^e^r
⁴^{75 U}^.^S^.²¹¹^pen^sⁱ^oⁿ^pl^an^pay^a^fⁱ^x^e^{d debt}^liab^ility^.
⁽¹⁹⁸⁶⁾^to^th^{e p}^l^an
^Un^{ited S}^t^ates^v^.^Co^r^p^{s o}^f^E^ngine^e^r^{s’ a}^sse^r^tioⁿ^No^t^rⁱ^p^e^{. Mer}^e^asser^tioⁿ^o^f^r^e^g^u^l^ato^r^y^j^u^rⁱ^sd^ictioⁿ^b^y^Co^r^p^{s is n}^o^t
^Riv^e^r^s^id^{e B}^a^y^v^iew^o^f^d^r^ed^g^e^an^d^f^{ill j}^u^rⁱ^sd^ictioⁿ^takⁱⁿ^g^;^oⁿ^ly^w^h^en^p^e^r^m^{it is d}^eⁿⁱ^ed^so^{as to}^b^a^r^{all b}^eⁿ^e^fⁱ^{cial u}^s^{e o}^f
^Hom^e^s^,^In^{c., 474}^ov^{er cer}^t^aⁱⁿ^f^r^es^h^w^ater^property^is^th^ere^a^takⁱⁿ^g^.^A^l^s^o^{, f}^{act th}^{at broad con}^s^tru^c^tion^of^s^t^atu^t^e
^U^.^S^.^{121 (1985)}^w^e^tlan^d^s^mⁱ^ght^yⁱ^e^l^d^mo^r^e^t^a^ki^{ngs i}^s^no^t^r^e^a^s^oⁿ^t^o^c^o^nst^r^ue^st^a^t^ut^e^na^r^r^o^w^l^y^,
^sin^{ce tak}ⁱⁿ^g^{is u}ⁿ^c^oⁿ^stitu^tioⁿ^a^{l o}ⁿ^ly^ifⁿ^o^m^ean^{s to}^o^b^t^aⁱⁿ
^com^p^en^s^a^tion^ex^is^ts^{. Su}^ch^m^ean^s^doe^s^e^xⁱ^s^t^h^e^{re, s}ⁱⁿ^{ce T}^u^ck^{er A}^c^t
^au^th^o^r^{izes co}^m^p^en^satioⁿ^f^o^r^f^e^d^e^r^a^{l tak}ⁱⁿ^g^s^.

^C^a^s^e^A^c^ti^on^attack^ed^Hol^dⁱⁿ^g/^rati^on^al^e
^W^illiam^s^oⁿ^Co^uⁿ^t^y^Co^unt^y’^s^r^e^j^e^c^tⁱ^oⁿ^o^f^Not^ripe.^T^a^kⁱⁿ^g^claim^ag^ain^s^{t s}^t^{ate/local g}^o^v^e^rn^m^eⁿ^tⁱⁿ^f^e^deral^cou^r^t
^Re^gi^oⁿ^a^l^P^l^aⁿⁿⁱ^ng^dev^e^l^oper’^s^s^u^bdi^vⁱ^sⁱ^on^pl^at^{is n}^o^{t r}ⁱ^p^e^uⁿ^l^{ess (}¹⁾^th^er^{e is f}ⁱⁿ^a^{l an}^d^au^th^o^r^itativ^{e d}^ecisⁱ^oⁿ^b^y
^Co^m^m^’ⁿ^v^.^g^o^v^e^rⁿ^m^eⁿ^t^{as to}^ty^p^e^aⁿ^dⁱⁿ^ten^s^ity^o^f^d^e^v^e^lo^p^m^en^{t allo}^w^e^d^,^an^d⁽²⁾
^Ham^iltoⁿ^Baⁿ^k^,^av^en^u^e^s^f^o^{r obtain}ⁱⁿ^g^com^p^en^s^a^tion^f^r^om^s^t^{ate fo}^ru^m^s^h^a^v^e^been
^{473 U}^.^S^.¹⁷²^ex^h^a^u^s^ted^.^Her^e^{, d}^e^v^e^lo^p^e^r^f^a^iled^to^seek^v^a^rⁱ^an^{ces f}^o^llo^wⁱⁿ^gⁱⁿ^itial
⁽¹⁹⁸⁵⁾^denⁱ^{al, th}^u^s^h^a^sⁿ^o^t^receiv^e^d^a^fⁱⁿ^a^{l decis}ⁱ^on^{. Nor}^did^dev^e^loper^u^s^e
^an^av^ailable^s^t^{ate procedu}^r^{e f}^o^{r obtain}ⁱⁿ^g^com^p^en^s^a^tion^.^A^b^s^eⁿ^{ce of}
^ex^h^a^u^s^tⁱ^oⁿ^requⁱ^r^em^en^tⁱⁿ^{42 U}^.^S^.^C^.^{§ 1983 di}^s^tⁱ^ngui^she^d^.
^Un^{ited St}^ates^v^.^Fed^e^r^a^{l statu}^t^{e v}^o^idⁱⁿ^g^N^o^t^a^kⁱⁿ^g^.^L^o^s^s^of^cl^ai^m^cou^l^d^ha^ve^b^e^en^av^oi^{ded w}ⁱ^t^h^mⁱⁿⁱ^m^a^l
^L^o^ck^{e, 471 U}^.^S^.⁸⁴^unp^a^t^eⁿ^t^e^d^mⁱⁿⁱ^{ng c}^l^aⁱ^m^s^b^u^r^d^eⁿ^{. N}^o^t^a^kⁱⁿ^g^w^h^en^propert^y^can^con^tⁱⁿ^u^e^t^o^{be h}^e^l^d^t^h^rough
⁽¹⁹⁸⁵⁾^w^h^en^c^l^aim^h^o^ld^er^f^a^{ils to}^o^wⁿ^e^r^’^{s co}^m^p^lian^{ce w}^ith^r^e^a^s^oⁿ^a^b^{le r}^e^g^u^l^atioⁿ^s^.^{Texaco, Inc., v.}
^m^a^ke^tim^e^l^y^a^nnua^{l filings}^Shor^t^,ⁱⁿ^f^r^a^p^a^ge⁸^,^fo^und^c^o^nt^r^o^l^lⁱ^ng.
^R^u^ck^els^h^a^u^s^v^.^Pu^blⁱ^c^di^s^c^l^o^s^u^re^aⁿ^{d ot}^h^e^r^T^a^kⁱⁿ^g^o^ccu^r^r^e^d^.^T^r^ad^{e secr}^ets^ar^e^p^r^o^p^e^r^t^y^,^b^u^{t o}ⁿ^ly^th^o^s^{e su}^b^m^itted
^Mon^s^an^{to C}^o^{., 467}^u^s^{e by}^EPA^ofⁱⁿ^du^s^t^ry^-^1972-^{78, w}^h^en^f^e^{deral pes}^{ticide s}^t^atu^t^{e con}^t^ain^e^{d a con}^f^iden^tiality
^U^.^S^.^{986 (1984)}^g^eⁿ^e^{rated trad}^e-^s^{ecret data}^g^u^a^ran^t^{ee, w}^e^{re t}^a^ke^n.^Bef^o^{re an}^{d af}^t^e^{r t}^hⁱ^s^peri^{od, t}^h^{ere w}^a^sⁿ^o
^su^b^m^itted^w^ith^ap^p^licatioⁿ^f^o^rⁱⁿ^v^e^stm^eⁿ^t^-^b^ack^ed^ex^p^ectatioⁿ^o^f^coⁿ^f^id^en^tiality^{, h}^eⁿ^{ce n}^o^takⁱⁿ^g^.
^p^e^sticid^{e r}^e^gⁱ^str^a^tioⁿ^T^u^ck^{er A}^c^t^rem^e^dy⁽^rⁱ^ght^t^o^s^eek^m^oⁿ^e^y^f^r^om^U^.^S^.ⁱⁿ^C^o^u^r^t^of
^Fed^e^r^a^{l Claim}^s⁾^w^a^{s n}^o^{t w}^ith^d^r^a^wⁿ^b^y^p^e^sticid^{e act. P}^e^sticid^{e act}
^rev^ealsⁿ^o^s^u^chⁱⁿ^ten^tion^,^an^{d w}^ith^draw^al^w^o^u^l^d^am^ouⁿ^t^to^dis^f^av^ored
^r^e^p^{eal b}^y^im^p^licatioⁿ^o^f^T^u^ck^er^A^c^{t. A}^l^so^{, f}^e^d^e^r^a^{l p}^e^sticid^{e act sets u}^p
^ex^h^a^u^s^tioⁿ^o^f^ag^en^cy^r^e^m^e^dⁱ^e^s^{as p}^r^ecoⁿ^d^itioⁿ^to^an^y^T^u^ck^er^A^c^t
^claim^.
^Kⁱ^rby^F^o^res^t^Fi^lⁱ^ng^o^f^c^o^nd^e^m^na^tⁱ^o^{n a}^c^tⁱ^oⁿ^N^o^t^a^ki^ng.^M^e^r^e^a^c^t^o^f^fi^lⁱ^{ng l}^e^a^v^e^s^l^a^nd^o^w^ne^r^fr^e^e^,^d^u^rⁱ^ng^p^e^nd^eⁿ^c^y
^In^du^s^t^ri^es^{, In}^{c. v}^.^b^y^U^.^S^.^t^o^a^c^q^uⁱ^r^e^l^aⁿ^d^f^o^r^o^f^coⁿ^d^emⁿ^a^tioⁿ^actioⁿ^,^to^m^a^k^e^an^y^u^s^{e o}^f^p^r^o^p^e^r^t^y^o^r^to^{sell it (}^b^u^t
^Uⁿⁱ^t^e^{d S}^t^at^es^{, 467}ⁿ^a^tioⁿ^a^{l p}^a^r^k^los^sⁱⁿ^m^a^rk^{et v}^a^lu^{e f}^r^om^s^u^ch^action^isⁿ^o^{t com}^p^en^s^a^ble).
^U^.^S^.^{1 (1984)}
^Un^{ited St}^ates^v^.^Re^t^r^o^a^c^tⁱ^v^e^use^o^f^b^a^nkr^up^t^c^y^Statu^t^{e w}^{ill n}^o^{t b}^e^ap^p^lied^r^e^tr^o^activ^ely^to^p^r^o^p^e^r^t^y^rⁱ^g^h^t^{s estab}^lish^e^d
^S^ecu^ri^t^y^In^du^s^t^ri^al^s^t^atu^t^e^t^o^av^{oid lien}^s^on^bef^o^{re en}^actm^eⁿ^t^{date, in}^abs^eⁿ^{ce of}^{clear con}^g^r^es^sⁱ^on^{al in}^ten^t^{. T}^h^ere
^Ban^k^,⁴⁵⁹^U^.^S^.⁷⁰^d^e^bt^or’^s^propert^y^t^h^at^{is su}^b^s^tan^{tial d}^o^u^b^t^w^h^eth^e^r^r^e^tr^o^activ^{e d}^e^str^u^ctioⁿ^o^f^lien^s^co^m^p^o^r^ts
⁽¹⁹⁸²⁾^attach^{ed bef}^o^{re s}^t^{atute w}^a^s^w^ith^T^a^kⁱⁿ^g^s^Clau^{se, an}^d^statu^t^o^r^y^r^eadⁱⁿ^g^r^a^isin^g^coⁿ^s^titu^tioⁿ^a^{l issu}^es
^en^acted^s^h^ou^l^d^{be av}^oi^{ded w}^h^{ere pos}^sⁱ^bl^e.
^L^o^r^e^tto^v^.^St^a^t^e^s^t^at^u^t^e^requi^rⁱ^ng^T^a^kiⁿ^g^occu^{rred. W}^h^{ere as}^h^e^{re g}^o^v^e^rn^m^eⁿ^t^cau^s^e^s^{a “}^p^erm^a^ne^nt
^T^e^l^e^p^r^om^pt^er^lan^d^lo^r^d^{s to}^allo^wⁱⁿ^stallin^g^ph^y^sⁱ^cal^occu^patⁱ^oⁿ^”^of^propert^y^,ⁱ^tⁱ^s^a^p^e^{r se}^t^a^ki^{ng —}^no^m^a^t^t^e^r^ho^w
^M^a^nha^t^t^a^{n CA}^T^V^of^{cable T}^V^equⁱ^pm^en^t^on^im^p^o^r^tan^t^th^{e p}^u^b^{lic in}^ter^e^{st ser}^v^ed^o^r^h^o^w^mⁱⁿⁱ^m^a^{l th}^{e eco}ⁿ^o^mⁱ^c
^C^o^{rp., 458 U}^.^S^.^prem^is^es^{, f}^o^{r on}^e-^tim^e^pay^-^im^p^{act. I}ⁿ^coⁿ^t^r^a^{st, tem}^p^o^r^ar^y^p^h^y^s^{ical in}^v^a^sioⁿ^{s m}^u^{st su}^b^m^{it to}
^{419 (1982)}^m^eⁿ^t^of^on^{e dol}^l^a^r^bal^aⁿ^cⁱⁿ^g^of^f^act^ors^.
^T^e^x^{aco, Inc. v}^.^St^a^t^e^st^a^t^ut^e^e^x^tⁱ^ngui^shiⁿ^g^No^takⁱⁿ^g^.^I^t^{is th}^{e o}^wⁿ^e^r^’^{s f}^a^ilu^r^e^to^u^s^e^th^e^mⁱⁿ^e^r^a^l^estate^o^r^tim^ely
^S^h^ort^,^{454 U}^.^S^.^s^e^v^e^r^e^d^mⁱⁿ^e^r^a^{l estate}^s^f^{ile a statem}^en^{t, n}^o^{t th}^{e state’}^{s im}^p^o^s^itioⁿ^o^f^r^easoⁿ^ab^{le co}ⁿ^d^itioⁿ^s^oⁿ
^{516 (1982)}^unuse^d^fo^r^l^oⁿ^g^tⁱ^m^e^unl^e^s^s^{estate r}^e^ten^tioⁿ^,^th^{at cau}^{ses th}^{e p}^r^o^p^e^r^t^y^rⁱ^g^h^t^to^lap^s^e.
^o^wⁿ^e^r^f^iled^statem^en^{t w}ⁱ^thⁱⁿ
^pres^{cribed period}
^D^a^m^e^s^&^Moore^v^.^P^r^esid^en^t’^{s n}^u^llif^icatioⁿ^o^f^No^takⁱⁿ^g^.^A^ttach^m^eⁿ^t^s^w^e^r^e^r^e^v^o^cab^{le an}^d^su^b^o^r^dⁱⁿ^a^{te to}^P^r^esid^en^t’^s
^R^e^g^aⁿ^,^{453 U}^.^S.^attach^m^eⁿ^t^s^on^Ir^an^ian^as^s^e^ts^p^o^w^er^uⁿ^d^er^Iⁿ^terⁿ^atioⁿ^a^{l Em}^er^g^eⁿ^c^y^Ecoⁿ^o^m^{ic P}^o^w^e^r^s^A^c^{t. Hen}^ce,
^{654 (1981)}ⁱⁿ^{U.S., du}^rin^g^h^o^s^t^ag^{e cris}^is^t^h^{ere w}^a^sⁿ^o^propert^yⁱⁿ^t^h^e^at^t^ach^m^eⁿ^t^s^s^u^ch^as^w^o^u^l^{d s}^u^pport^cl^ai^m
^f^o^r^co^m^p^en^satioⁿ^.^A^l^so^{, p}^o^ssib^ility^th^{at su}^sp^en^sioⁿ^o^f^claim^s^ag^ain^s^t
^Iran^ian^as^s^e^ts^m^a^y^ef^f^{ect tak}ⁱⁿ^g^m^a^k^e^s^ripe^th^e^qu^es^tion^w^h^eth^e^r^th^ere
^{is T}^u^ck^er^A^c^{t r}^e^m^e^d^y^h^e^r^e^{. W}^e^h^o^ld^th^er^{e is.}
^H^odel^v^.^Indi^an^a,^Restrⁱ^ctioⁿ^sⁱⁿ^f^e^d^e^r^a^{l statu}^t^e^No^takⁱⁿ^g^.^P^l^ain^tif^f^s^f^a^iled^to^alleg^e^th^{at an}^y^sp^e^cⁱ^fⁱ^c^p^r^o^p^e^r^t^y^w^a^s
^{452 U}^.^S^.³¹⁴^on^s^u^rf^{ace m}ⁱⁿⁱⁿ^g^of^p^r^im^e^t^a^ke^n.^M^e^r^e^eⁿ^a^c^t^m^e^nt^o^f^st^a^t^ut^e^w^a^s^no^t^a^ki^ng,^si^nc^e^p^rⁱ^m^e^fa^r^m^l^a^nd
⁽¹⁹⁸¹⁾^fa^r^m^l^a^nd^s^prov^is^ion^s^{do n}^o^{t on}^th^{eir f}^{ace den}^y^lan^dowⁿ^e^r^s^{all econ}^o^mⁱ^{c u}^s^{e of}
^suc^h^la^nd^—^e.g.^,^d^o^no^t^r^e^st^rⁱ^c^t^no^n-mⁱⁿⁱ^{ng use}^s^t^h^e^r^e^o^f.

^C^a^s^e^A^c^ti^on^attack^ed^Hol^dⁱⁿ^g/^rati^on^al^e
^Ho^d^e^{l v}^.^Vir^gⁱⁿ^ia^Dem^aⁿ^dⁱⁿ^f^e^der^a^l^{act th}^at^No^takⁱⁿ^g^.^P^l^ain^tif^f^s^f^a^iled^to^alleg^e^t^h^a^t^aⁿ^y^sp^ecifⁱ^{c p}^r^o^p^e^r^t^y^w^a^s
^Surf^{ace Min}ⁱⁿ^g^&^s^u^rf^{ace m}ⁱⁿ^e^rs^res^t^{ore s}^t^eep^t^a^ke^n.^M^e^r^e^eⁿ^a^c^t^m^e^nt^o^f^s^t^a^t^ut^e^w^a^{s no}^t^a^ki^ng,^si^nc^e^c^h^a^l^l^e^nge^d
^R^ecl^a^m^ation^s^l^opes^t^o^ori^gⁱⁿ^al^con^t^ou^{r, an}^d^prov^is^ion^s^{do n}^o^{t on}^th^{eir f}^{ace den}^y^lan^dowⁿ^e^rs^{all econ}^o^mⁱ^{c u}^s^{e of}
^A^s^s^’^{n, 452 U}^.^S^.^su^rf^{ace m}ⁱⁿⁱⁿ^g^p^r^o^h^ib^itioⁿ^s^af^f^{ected la}ⁿ^d^{. In}^an^y^ev^en^{t, tak}ⁱⁿ^g^claim^isⁿ^o^{t ripe, s}ⁱⁿ^{ce plain}^tif^f^s
^{264 (1981)}^th^erein^ne^ve^r^use^d^a^v^e^nue^{s f}^o^r^a^d^mⁱⁿⁱ^st^r^a^tⁱ^v^e^r^e^lⁱ^e^{f i}ⁿ^a^c^t^—^e.g.,^v^a^rian^ce
^f^r^o^m^o^r^igⁱⁿ^al-^c^oⁿ^to^u^r^r^e^q^u^ir^em^en^t.
^San^Dieg^o^{Gas &}^Cⁱ^t^y^’^s^adoptⁱ^oⁿ^of^open^-^s^p^ace^N^o^fi^na^l^j^u^d^g^m^e^nt^b^y^st^a^t^e^c^o^ur^t^b^e^l^o^w^a^s^t^o^w^h^e^t^h^e^r^a^t^a^ki^{ng ha}^d
^{Electric C}^o^.^v^.^San^pl^an^occu^{rred, h}^eⁿ^{ce n}^o^S^u^prem^e^C^o^u^r^t^j^u^ri^s^dⁱ^c^tⁱ^oⁿ^uⁿ^d^{er 28 U}^.^S^.^C^.^{§ 1257.}
^Dⁱ^eg^{o, 450}^U^.^S^.
^{621 (1980)}
^Webb’^s^F^a^bu^l^o^u^s^C^o^uⁿ^t^y^cou^r^{t declarin}^g^as^T^a^kⁱⁿ^g^occu^{rred. On}^f^acts^pres^en^{ted, in}^tere^s^t^cou^l^{d n}^o^{t be v}ⁱ^ew^ed
^P^h^arm^acies^{, In}^c.,^p^u^b^{lic m}^oⁿ^e^y^th^{e in}^ter^e^{st o}ⁿ^sim^p^ly^as^f^ee^to^co^v^e^r^co^u^r^{t co}^{sts. State m}^a^yⁿ^o^{t tak}^eⁱⁿ^ter^e^st^sim^p^ly
^v^.^B^eck^w^ith^{, 449}ⁱⁿ^ter^p^lead^er^f^uⁿ^d^d^e^p^o^s^ited^b^y^c^a^l^lⁱ^{ng a}^d^e^p^o^sⁱ^t^e^d^fund^“p^ub^lⁱ^c^m^o^ne^y^.^”
^U^.^S^.^{155 (1980)}^b^y^litig^an^{ts w}^ith^th^{e co}^u^r^t
^Unⁱ^t^{ed States}^v^.^{1877 s}^t^at^u^t^e^abrog^a^tⁱⁿ^g^Sⁱ^ou^x^T^a^kⁱⁿ^g^o^ccu^rred^{. In}^gⁱ^vⁱⁿ^g^trib^{e ra}^tⁱ^oⁿ^s^uⁿ^{til th}^ey^b^ecam^{e self}^-
^Sⁱ^oux^N^a^tⁱ^oⁿ^of^Natioⁿ^’^{s r}ⁱ^g^h^t^{s to}^B^l^ack^Hills,^s^u^f^fⁱ^ci^en^t^,^{1877 s}^t^at^u^t^{e di}^{d n}^o^t^ef^f^ect^{a m}^e^{re ch}^an^geⁱⁿ^t^h^{e f}^o^rm^of
^In^di^an^s^,^{448 U}^.^S^.^t^h^u^s^abr^o^g^a^tⁱⁿ^g^{1868 t}^r^eat^yⁱⁿ^v^e^s^t^m^e^nt^of^In^di^an^t^rⁱ^b^al^propert^y^(l^an^{d t}^o^ratⁱ^oⁿ^s^{) by}^t^h^{e f}^e^deral
^{371 (1980)}^w^ith^tr^ib^e^tru^s^{tee. R}^a^th^{er, it ef}^f^{ected a tak}ⁱⁿ^g^of^tri^b^{al property}^s^e^{t as}^{ide by}^th^e
^{1868 t}^r^eat^y^.^T^hⁱ^s^t^a^kⁱⁿ^gⁱ^m^plⁱ^e^{d an}^oblⁱ^g^atⁱ^oⁿ^bv^t^h^{e U}^.^S^.^t^o^m^a^k^e^j^u^s^t
^co^m^p^en^satioⁿ^to^th^{e Sio}^u^x^.
^A^gⁱⁿ^{s v}^.^City^o^f^M^uni^cⁱ^p^a^l^r^e^z^oⁿⁱ^{ng und}^e^r^N^o^fa^cⁱ^a^l^t^a^ki^ng;^a^s^-a^p^p^lⁱ^e^d^c^l^aⁱ^m^no^t^rⁱ^p^e^.^Zoⁿⁱ^{ng l}^a^w^e^ffe^c^t^{s t}^a^ki^ng
^Tⁱ^bu^ron^,^{447 U}^.^S^.^w^hⁱ^c^h^propert^y^owⁿ^e^{r cou}^l^d^if^{it d}^o^e^{s n}^o^t^su^b^s^tan^tially^ad^v^aⁿ^ce^leg^itim^ate^{state in}^ter^e^{sts o}^r^d^eⁿⁱ^es
^{255 (1980)}^bui^l^d^bet^w^een^on^{e an}^{d f}ⁱ^v^e^o^w^ne^r^e^c^o^no^mⁱ^c^a^l^l^y^vi^a^b^l^e^use^o^f^hi^{s l}^a^nd^.^T^hus,^no^fa^cⁱ^a^l^t^a^ki^{ng he}^r^e^:
^ho^use^s^oⁿ^hi^{s l}^a^nd^en^actm^eⁿ^t^o^f^o^r^dⁱⁿ^aⁿ^{ce is r}^a^tioⁿ^a^lly^r^e^lated^to^leg^itim^{ate p}^u^b^{lic g}^o^{al o}^f
^open^-^s^p^{ace pres}^erv^a^tion^,^ordin^aⁿ^{ce ben}^e^f^its^property^owⁿ^e^{r as}^w^e^{ll as}
^p^u^b^lic,^aⁿ^d^o^wⁿ^e^r^m^a^y^{still b}^e^ab^{le to}^b^u^ild^u^p^to^fⁱ^v^e^h^o^u^s^{es o}ⁿ^lo^t.
^A^s^-^a^p^p^lied^ch^a^l^l^eⁿ^g^{e is p}^r^em^atu^r^{e, sin}^{ce o}^wⁿ^e^rⁿ^e^v^e^r^su^b^m^itted
^dev^e^lopm^en^{t plan}^f^o^{r approv}^{al u}ⁿ^d^{er th}^{e n}^e^w^zonⁱⁿ^g^.
^P^r^une^Y^a^r^d^{State co}ⁿ^s^titu^tioⁿ^a^{l m}^aⁿ^d^ate^No^takⁱⁿ^g^.^W^{ill n}^o^{t u}ⁿ^r^easoⁿ^ab^ly^im^p^a^ir^v^a^lu^e^o^r^u^s^e^o^f^p^r^o^p^e^r^t^y^{as a}
^S^h^oppiⁿ^g^C^eⁿ^t^{er v}^.^t^h^a^t^pers^on^s^{be al}^l^o^w^e^{d t}^o^s^h^oppin^g^cen^{ter, s}ⁱⁿ^{ce f}^acility^is^opeⁿ^t^o^p^{ublic at larg}^{e. A}ⁿ^{d ow}ⁿ^e^r
^R^obiⁿ^s^{, 44}^{7 U}^.^S^.^en^g^a^g^eⁱⁿ^p^o^litical^ex^p^r^essioⁿ^m^a^y^res^t^{rict tim}^{e, place, an}^{d m}^aⁿⁿ^e^{r of}^ex^pres^sⁱ^on^.
^{74 (1980)}ⁱⁿ^pri^v^at^{e s}^h^oppiⁿ^g^cen^t^e^r
^U^S^v.^Cl^a^r^ke^,⁴⁴⁵^Muⁿⁱ^cip^a^lities’^en^terⁱⁿ^gⁱⁿ^t^o^Fed^e^r^a^l^statu^t^{e p}^r^o^v^idⁱⁿ^g^th^{at allo}^tted^Iⁿ^dⁱ^an^lan^d^{s m}^a^y^b^e
^U^.^S^.^{253 (1980)}^p^h^y^s^ic^a^l^p^o^sse^ssioⁿ^o^f^la^nd^“^c^oⁿ^d^e^mⁿ^ed^{” u}ⁿ^d^er^{state law}^d^o^e^{s n}^o^{t allo}^w^{cities to}^tak^e^lan^d^b^y
^w^ith^o^u^{t b}^rⁱⁿ^gⁱⁿ^g^ph^y^s^{ical pos}^s^e^s^sⁱ^onⁱⁿ^abs^eⁿ^{ce of}^f^o^rm^{al con}^d^e^m^na^tion^proceedin^g^.
^c^o^nd^e^m^na^tⁱ^o^{n a}^c^tⁱ^oⁿ^T^e^rm^“^c^on^demⁿ^{ed” ref}^e^rs^on^l^y^t^o^fⁱ^lⁱⁿ^g^of^con^d^em^na^tⁱ^on^by
^go^ve^rⁿ^m^e^nt^,^no^t^fi^lⁱ^{ng o}^f^“i^nve^r^s^e^c^o^nd^e^m^na^tⁱ^o^n”^a^c^tⁱ^o^{n b}^y^l^a^nd^o^w^ne^r^.
^Ka^iser^A^e^tn^{a v}^.^F^e^deral^{order t}^h^at^owⁿ^e^rs^of^T^a^ki^{ng o}^c^c^u^r^r^e^d^.^Iⁿ^frⁱ^nge^m^e^nt^o^f^m^a^rⁱ^na^o^w^ne^r^’^{s r}ⁱ^ght^t^o^e^x^c^l^ud^e
^Uⁿⁱ^t^e^{d S}^t^at^es^{, 444}^ex^cl^u^sⁱ^v^e^p^rⁱ^v^ate^m^a^rin^a^,^oth^e^rs^{, particu}^l^arly^w^h^{ere th}^ere’^sⁱⁿ^v^e^s^t^m^eⁿ^t^-^b^ack^{ed ex}^pectation^of
^U^.^S^.^{164 (1979)}^m^a^{de n}^a^vi^g^a^bl^{e by}^pri^v^at^e^p^rⁱ^v^a^c^y^,^go^e^s^b^e^y^o^nd^p^e^r^mⁱ^ssi^b^l^e^r^e^gul^a^tⁱ^o^n.^N^a^vi^ga^tⁱ^o^{n se}^r^vⁱ^t^u^d^e
^f^uⁿ^d^s^,^g^r^an^{t acces}^s^{to boatin}^g^d^o^e^{s no}^t^gr^aⁿ^t^go^ve^rⁿ^m^e^nt^a^b^so^l^u^t^e^t^a^ki^{ng i}^m^m^uni^t^y^.
^pu^blⁱ^c
^Aⁿ^dru^s^{v. A}^l^l^a^rd,^F^e^deral^ban^oⁿ^s^a^l^e^of^eag^l^e^No^takⁱⁿ^g^.^Denⁱ^{al o}^f^oⁿ^{e tr}^ad^itioⁿ^a^{l p}^r^o^p^e^r^t^y^rⁱ^g^h^t⁽^s^ellin^g⁾^d^o^e^{s n}^o^t
^{444 U}^.^S^.^{51 (1979)}^part^s^or^artⁱ^f^act^s^m^a^deⁿ^ecessarⁱ^l^y^a^m^o^uⁿ^t^to^takⁱⁿ^g^,^ev^en^if^{it is m}^o^{st p}^r^o^f^itab^l^{e u}^s^{e o}^f
^th^eref^rom^,^as^{applied to}^s^t^ock^propert^y^.^Pl^aiⁿ^tⁱ^f^f^ret^aⁱⁿ^{ed ri}^g^h^t^t^o^pos^s^e^s^s^,^pas^s^on^,^or^ex^hⁱ^bi^t^f^o^{r an}
^l^a^w^f^u^l^l^y^obt^aiⁿ^e^{d bef}^o^{re ban}^admⁱ^s^sⁱ^on^{price, th}^{e af}^f^{ected in}^v^eⁿ^t^ory^.

^C^a^s^e^A^c^ti^on^attack^ed^Hol^dⁱⁿ^g/^rati^on^al^e
^P^e^{nn Ce}^nt^r^a^l^Cⁱ^t^y^’^s^u^s^{e of}^hⁱ^s^t^ori^c^pres^er-^{No tak}ⁱⁿ^g^.^Gen^e^rally^{, th}^{ere are th}^{ree f}^actors^of^“^p^articu^l^ar
^T^r^an^s^p^{. C}^o^.^v^.^va^tⁱ^o^{n o}^r^dⁱ^na^nc^e^t^o^b^l^o^c^k^sⁱ^gⁿⁱ^fⁱ^can^{ce” in}^{a tak}ⁱⁿ^g^s^determⁱⁿ^ation^:^{(1) econ}^o^mⁱ^{c im}^{pact of}
^New^Y^o^r^k^City^,^coⁿ^s^tr^u^c^tioⁿ^o^f^o^f^fⁱ^{ce to}^w^e^r^r^e^gul^a^tⁱ^oⁿ^oⁿ^p^r^o^p^e^r^t^y^o^w^ne^r^;⁽²⁾^e^x^t^e^nt^t^o^w^hⁱ^c^{h r}^e^gul^a^tⁱ^o^{n i}ⁿ^t^e^r^f^e^r^e^s
⁴^{38 U}^.^S^.¹⁰⁴^a^t^o^p^desⁱ^gⁿ^a^t^e^{d hi}^st^o^rⁱ^c^w^ith^dis^tin^{ct in}^v^e^s^t^m^eⁿ^t^-^b^ack^{ed ex}^pectation^s^{; an}^{d (3) “}^c^h^a^racte^r^{” of}
⁽¹⁹⁷⁸⁾^lan^d^m^a^r^k^go^ve^rⁿ^m^e^nt^a^c^tⁱ^o^{n (}^m^e^aⁿⁱ^{ng p}^rⁱⁿ^cⁱ^p^a^l^l^y^t^h^a^t^r^e^gul^a^tⁱ^o^{n o}^f^useⁱ^s^l^e^ss
^lik^ely^to^b^e^takⁱⁿ^g^th^an^p^h^y^s^{ical in}^v^a^sioⁿ⁾^.^Her^e^{, lan}^d^m^a^r^k^o^wⁿ^e^r^m^a^y
^earⁿ^ad^eq^u^a^te^r^e^tu^rⁿ^f^r^o^m^b^u^ildⁱⁿ^g^{as is, an}^d^m^o^r^e^m^o^d^e^st^ad^d^itioⁿ^s^to
^b^u^ildⁱⁿ^g^stil^{l m}ⁱ^g^h^t^b^e^ap^p^r^o^v^ed^{. City}^’^s^o^f^f^e^rⁱⁿ^g^o^f^tr^an^sf^er^r^a^b^l^e
^d^e^ve^l^o^p^m^eⁿ^t^rⁱ^ght^{s t}^o^b^uⁱ^l^dⁱⁿ^g^o^w^ne^r^a^l^so^w^eⁱ^{ghs a}^g^aⁱ^nst^a^t^a^ki^ng.
^Fin^a^lly^{, city}^canⁿ^o^{t seg}^m^en^{t air}^rⁱ^g^h^t^{s o}^v^er^b^u^ildⁱⁿ^g^f^r^o^m^r^e^m^aⁱⁿ^d^e^r^o^f
^property^an^{d claim}^th^{at all u}^s^{e of}^{air rig}^h^t^s^w^a^s^tak^eⁿ^.

II. The Dawn of Regulatory Takings Law:
Pennsylvania Coal Co. (1922) to 1978
The principle that government may "take" property in the Fifth Amendment sense
merely through regulatory restriction of property use — that is, without physical
invasion or formal appropriation of the property — was announced in 1922. In
Pennsylvania Coal Co. v. Mahon, the redoubtable Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes wrote
for the Supreme Court that a state law prohibiting coal mining that might cause surface
subsidence in certain areas was a taking of the mining company's mineral estate.
The first steps taken by this infant doctrine, however, were unsteady ones. Aside
from making clear that takings occur only with the most severe of property impacts, the
Court’s opinions during this period display little in the way of principled
decisionmaking. Moreover, the Court refused at times to part with its longstanding due-
process approach to testing property-use restrictions, vacillating between the two
theories.
^C^a^s^e^A^c^ti^on^attack^ed^Hol^dⁱⁿ^g/^rati^on^al^e
^D^uke^P^o^w^e^r^Co^.^v.^F^e^d^e^r^a^l^s^t^a^t^u^t^e^lim^itin^g^W^h^{ere in}^divⁱ^du^als^s^eek^declarator^y^j^u^dg^m^eⁿ^t^th^{at s}^t^atu^t^{e (P}^rice-
^Ca^r^o^lⁱ^na^am^ouⁿ^t^recov^e^rab^l^e^by^Aⁿ^d^e^rsoⁿ^A^c^{t) is u}ⁿ^c^oⁿ^stitu^tioⁿ^a^{l b}^ecau^{se it d}^o^e^{s n}^o^{t assu}^{re ad}^eq^u^a^te
^E^nvi^r^o^nm^eⁿ^t^a^lⁱⁿ^j^u^r^e^d^p^a^r^{ties in}^th^{e ev}^en^t^o^f^com^p^ens^a^tⁱ^o^{n in}^th^{e ev}^en^{t of}^{a tak}ⁱⁿ^g^,^rath^{er th}^an^s^eekⁱⁿ^g
^S^t^u^d^y^G^r^ou^{p, 438}^{a n}^u^c^{lear acciden}^t^com^p^en^s^a^tion^,^th^ey^m^a^y^{do s}^oⁱⁿ^dis^t^{rict cou}^r^{t u}ⁿ^d^{er 28 U.S.C}^.
^U^.^S^.^{59 (1978)}^{§1331(a), an}^{d m}^a^y^do^s^o^bef^o^r^e^pot^en^tⁱ^a^l^l^y^uⁿ^c^om^pen^s^abl^e^dam^a^g^e^s
^{are s}^u^s^t^ain^e^{d. (Footn}^o^{te 15) A}^l^s^o^{, it is}^uⁿⁿ^eces^s^a^ry^{to reach}^takⁱⁿ^g
^claim^h^e^re,^becau^s^e^s^t^atu^t^e^doesⁿ^o^{t w}^ith^draw^th^{e T}^u^ck^{er A}^c^t^rem^e^dy
⁽^r^ig^h^t^to^seek^co^m^p^en^satioⁿ^f^r^o^m^{U.S. in}^Co^u^r^{t o}^f^Fed^e^r^a^{l Claim}^s⁾^.
^(F^ootⁿ^o^t^e³⁹⁾
^Re^gi^on^al^Raⁱ^l^F^e^{deral s}^t^atu^t^{e directi}ⁿ^g^A^v^ailab^ility^o^f^T^u^ck^er^A^c^{t r}^e^m^e^d^y⁽^r^ig^h^t^to^seek^co^m^p^en^satioⁿ^f^r^o^m
^Re^o^r^gaⁿⁱ^z^a^tⁱ^oⁿ^tr^an^sf^er^o^f^b^aⁿ^k^r^u^p^{t r}^a^il-^{U.S. in}^Co^u^r^{t o}^f^Fed^e^r^a^l^Claim^s⁾^if^r^a^{il act ef}^f^{ects “}^e^r^o^sioⁿ^takⁱⁿ^g^”^is
^A^c^{t Ca}^se^s,⁴¹⁹^r^o^ad^s’^ass^e^{ts to}^f^e^d^e^r^a^lly^rⁱ^p^e^issu^eⁱⁿ^vⁱ^ew^o^f^dⁱ^stin^{ct p}^o^ssib^ility^th^{at co}^m^p^elled^r^a^{il o}^p^e^r^a^tioⁿ^s
^U^.^S^.^{102 (1974)}^{created cor}^p^o^r^a^tⁱ^oⁿ^an^d^{at a lo}^{ss w}^o^u^l^d^er^o^d^e^r^a^ilr^o^a^d^’^{s v}^a^lu^{e b}^e^y^oⁿ^d^coⁿ^s^titu^tioⁿ^a^{l lim}^its.
^fo^r^cⁱ^{ng c}^o^ntⁱ^nue^d^o^p^e^r^a^tⁱ^oⁿ^Sim^ilar^l^y^,^issu^{e o}^f^r^e^m^e^d^y^’^s^av^ailab^ility^if^r^a^il^{act ef}^f^{ects “}^c^oⁿ^v^e^y^aⁿ^c^e
^o^f^uⁿ^p^r^o^f^itab^l^{e lin}^es^takⁱⁿ^g^”^{is r}ⁱ^p^e^{, sin}^{ce act w}^{ill lead}ⁱⁿ^ex^o^r^ab^ly^to^coⁿ^v^e^y^aⁿ^ce^o^f^assets.
^On^m^e^r^{its, T}^u^ck^e^r^Ac^{t r}^e^m^e^d^y^{is av}^ailab^l^{e f}^o^r^b^o^t^h^alleg^e^d^takⁱⁿ^g^s
^b^ecau^{se rail act in}^dⁱ^{cates n}^o^coⁿ^t^raryⁱⁿ^ten^t;^av^ailab^ilityⁿ^eedⁿ^o^{t b}^e
^s^t^ated.
^C^a^l^e^ro-^T^ol^{edo v}^.^P^u^{erto R}ⁱ^co’^s^s^e^izu^r^{e of}^No^takⁱⁿ^g^.^Fo^rf^eitu^{re is n}^o^{t ren}^d^ered^uⁿ^c^oⁿ^stitu^tioⁿ^a^{l b}^ecau^{se it}
^P^ears^oⁿ^Y^a^c^h^t^y^ach^{t u}^s^{ed f}^o^{r u}ⁿ^l^aw^f^u^l^ap^p^{lies to}^p^r^o^p^e^r^t^y^o^fⁱⁿⁿ^o^cen^{ts. T}^h^e^p^r^o^p^e^r^t^y^itself^{is tr}^eated^{as th}^e
^L^easⁱⁿ^g^C^o^{., 416}^activ^ity^b^y^{lessee, b}^u^{t h}^a^vⁱⁿ^g^o^ffe^nd^e^r^,^m^a^ki^{ng o}^w^ne^r^’^{s c}^o^nd^uc^tⁱ^r^r^e^l^e^va^nt^.^A^l^so^,^o^w^ne^r^vo^l^unt^a^rⁱ^l^y
^U^.^S^.^{663 (1974)}ⁱⁿⁿ^o^cen^{t lesso}^r^en^tr^u^s^ted^th^{e y}^ach^{t to}^th^{e lessee, an}^d^th^er^{e w}^a^sⁿ^o^alleg^a^tioⁿ^th^at^th^e
^owⁿ^e^{r di}^{d al}^lⁱ^t^cou^l^{d t}^o^av^oi^{d h}^a^vⁱⁿ^g^propert^y^pu^t^t^o^uⁿ^l^aw^f^u^l^u^s^e.
^Hu^rta^d^o^v^.^Un^ited^P^r^e-^tr^{ial d}^e^ten^tioⁿ^o^f^f^e^d^e^r^a^l^No^takⁱⁿ^g^.^T^h^er^{e is p}^u^b^{lic d}^u^ty^to^p^r^o^v^id^e^ev^id^en^ce;^f^act^th^at^p^r^e-^tr^ial
^S^t^at^es^{, 410}^U^.^S^.^cr^imⁱⁿ^{al w}^itn^{esses w}^h^o^ar^e^d^e^ten^tioⁿ^{is in}^v^o^lv^ed^h^e^r^e^{, an}^d^th^{at f}ⁱⁿ^aⁿ^c^{ial b}^u^r^d^en^m^a^y^b^e^g^r^{eat, is}
^{578 (1973)}^lik^ely^{to f}^l^{ee an}^{d can}ⁿ^o^{t pos}^tⁱ^m^m^a^t^e^rⁱ^a^l^.^T^a^ki^ngs^Cl^a^u^se^d^o^e^s^no^t^m^a^ke^U^.^S.^p^a^y^fo^r^p^e^r^f^o^r^m^a^nc^e
^bon^d;^pay^m^en^t^of^on^l^y^on^e^of^dut^yⁱ^tⁱ^s^a^l^ready^ow^{ed. Hen}^{ce, is}^s^u^{e of}^w^h^eth^e^{r on}^{e dollar is}
^dol^l^a^{r per day}^adequ^a^{te com}^p^en^s^a^tionⁿ^{eed n}^o^{t be reach}^ed.

^C^a^s^e^A^c^ti^on^attack^ed^Hol^dⁱⁿ^g/^rati^on^al^e
^YMC^A^v^.^Un^ited^O^c^c^u^p^a^tⁱ^o^{n o}^f^p^l^aⁱ^ntⁱ^ff’s^N^o^t^a^ki^ng.^W^h^e^r^e^p^rⁱ^v^a^t^e^p^a^r^t^yⁱ^sⁱⁿ^t^e^nd^e^d^b^e^ne^fi^cⁱ^a^r^y^o^f^go^ve^rⁿ^m^e^nt
^S^t^at^es^{, 395 U}^.^S^.^b^u^ildⁱⁿ^g^sⁱⁿ^Can^a^{l Z}^oⁿ^e^b^y^a^c^tⁱ^vⁱ^t^y^,^r^e^sul^t^a^nt^l^o^sse^{s ne}^e^d^no^t^b^e^c^o^m^p^eⁿ^sa^t^e^{d e}^v^eⁿ^t^h^o^{ugh a}^c^tⁱ^vⁱ^t^y
^{85 (1969)}^U^.^S^.^t^r^oops^s^e^e^kⁱⁿ^g^t^o^w^a^{s also}ⁱⁿ^ten^d^edⁱⁿ^cid^eⁿ^t^ally^t^o^b^eⁿ^e^f^{it p}^u^b^{lic. A}^l^so^{, d}^a^m^a^g^e^b^y
^prot^ect^buⁱ^l^dⁱⁿ^g^s^f^r^om^rⁱ^o^t^er^{s w}^a^{s n}^o^{t ca}^u^s^e^d^dⁱ^r^ectly^an^d^su^b^s^tan^tially^b^y^g^o^v^e^rⁿ^m^eⁿ^t
^P^a^na^m^aⁿⁱ^aⁿ^rⁱ^o^t^e^r^s^occu^pation^.
^Hear^{t o}^f^A^tlan^t^a^{Federal s}^t^atu^t^{e ban}ⁿⁱⁿ^g^r^acial^{No tak}ⁱⁿ^g^.^“^T^h^e^cas^es^{are to th}^{e con}^t^rary^[of^th^{e tak}ⁱⁿ^g^claim^]^.”
^M^o^tel,^Iⁿ^c^.^v^.^dⁱ^s^c^rⁱ^mⁱⁿ^a^tioⁿⁱⁿ^p^u^b^lic
^Uⁿⁱ^t^e^{d S}^t^at^es^,³⁷⁹^accom^m^odation^s
^U^.^S^.^{241 (1964)}
^D^uga^{n v.}^Ra^nk^,^T^h^reateⁿ^e^d^s^t^orag^e^an^d^I^f^p^l^ain^tif^f^s^h^a^v^e^v^a^lid^w^a^ter^rⁱ^g^h^t^{s th}^{at ar}^{e p}^a^r^tially^tak^eⁿ^,^th^eir
^{372 U}^.^S^.⁶⁰⁹^di^v^e^r^sⁱ^oⁿ^of^w^a^t^e^{r at}^rem^e^dyⁱ^s^no^t^anⁱⁿ^j^uⁿ^c^tⁱ^oⁿ^s^t^oppiⁿ^g^t^h^{e recl}^am^atⁱ^oⁿ^proj^ect^bu^t^a
⁽¹⁹⁶³⁾^f^e^deral^l^y^operat^e^{d C}^eⁿ^t^ral^takⁱⁿ^g^s^u^{it ag}^ain^s^t^th^e^{U.S. u}ⁿ^d^{er th}^{e T}^u^ck^{er A}^c^{t. Dam}^a^g^e^s^{are to be}
^V^a^l^l^e^y^Proj^ect^dam^m^eas^u^r^{ed by}^th^{e dif}^f^e^ren^{ce in}^m^a^rk^{et v}^a^lu^{e of}^th^{e plain}^tif^f^s^’^l^a^nds
^bef^o^{re an}^{d af}^{ter th}^{e tak}ⁱⁿ^g^.
^G^o^l^dbl^a^t^t^v.^O^r^dⁱ^naⁿ^{ce barrin}^g^ex^cav^ation^N^o^t^a^kⁱⁿ^g^.^F^act^t^h^at^ordiⁿ^aⁿ^{ce depri}^v^e^s^p^r^o^p^e^rt^y^ofⁱ^t^s^m^o^s^t
^H^e^m^p^s^t^{ead, 3}⁶⁹^b^e^lo^w^w^a^ter^tab^l^e^ben^e^fⁱ^{cial u}^s^{e, ev}^en^an^ex^is^tin^g^on^{e, does}ⁿ^o^{t ren}^d^{er it a tak}ⁱⁿ^g^.^No
^U^.^S^.^{590 (1962)}^ev^id^en^{ce th}^{at o}^r^dⁱⁿ^aⁿ^{ce w}^{ill r}^e^d^u^{ce v}^a^lu^{e o}^f^l^o^t^,^aⁿ^d^o^r^dⁱⁿ^aⁿ^{ce is}
^v^a^lid^p^o^lice-^p^o^w^er^r^e^g^u^l^atioⁿ^.
^G^rⁱ^{ggs v.}^Lo^w^aⁿ^d^fr^e^q^ue^nt^flⁱ^ght^s^T^a^kⁱⁿ^g^o^c^c^u^r^r^e^d^of^an^{air eas}^em^en^{t, per ru}^{le of}^Uⁿⁱ^t^e^{d St}^at^es^v.
^A^l^l^e^ghe^ny^C^o^uⁿ^t^y^,^ov^{er h}^o^m^eⁿ^{ear cou}ⁿ^t^y^-^C^aus^by^,ⁱⁿ^fra^p^a^ge¹³^.^Co^unt^y^,^r^a^t^h^e^r^t^h^aⁿ^U^.^S.^,^m^u^st^a^ssum^e^t^a^ki^ng
^{369 U}^.^S^.⁸⁴^owⁿ^e^{d ai}^rport^liab^ility^{, sin}^{ce n}^o^tw^ith^stan^dⁱⁿ^g^f^e^d^e^r^a^{l air}^p^o^r^{t stan}^d^a^r^d^s^th^at^m^u^{st b}^e
⁽¹⁹⁶²⁾^m^e^{t f}^o^{r receip}^t^o^f^f^e^d^e^{ral f}^uⁿ^d^{s, co}^uⁿ^t^y^p^r^o^m^o^t^ed^{, b}^u^{ilt, o}^wⁿ^s^{, an}^d
^operat^e^s^ai^rport^.
^A^r^m^s^t^r^o^{ng v.}^R^e^qu^{ired tran}^s^f^{er t}^o^{U.S. of}^T^a^ki^{ng o}^c^c^u^r^r^e^d^.^D^e^st^r^u^c^tⁱ^o^{n b}^y^go^ve^rⁿ^meⁿ^t^o^f^a^l^l^va^l^u^e^o^f^lⁱ^eⁿ
^Uⁿⁱ^t^e^{d S}^t^at^es^,³⁶⁴^{title to}^uⁿ^fⁱⁿ^ish^e^d^b^o^a^t,⁽^w^hi^c^hⁱ^s^p^r^o^p^e^r^t^y⁾ⁱ^s^no^t^m^e^r^e^c^o^nse^q^ue^ntⁱ^a^lⁱⁿ^j^u^r^y^,^he^nc^e^no^n-
^U^.^S^.^{40 (1960)}^m^a^ki^{ng a}^m^a^t^e^rⁱ^a^l^m^e^{n’s l}ⁱ^eⁿ^com^p^en^s^a^{ble, bu}^{t is}^rath^{er a direct res}^u^{lt of}^U.S.’^ex^ercisⁱⁿ^g^o^p^tⁱ^oⁿ
^uⁿ^eⁿ^f^orceable^uⁿ^d^er^coⁿ^t^r^{act to}^tak^e^{title to}^v^e^ssel.
^Un^{ited States}^v^.^F^e^dera^l^w^a^r^tⁱ^m^e^order^N^o^t^a^ki^ng.^G^o^ve^rⁿ^m^e^nt^dⁱ^d^no^t^o^c^c^u^p^y^,^use^,^o^r^p^o^sse^{ss m}ⁱ^ne^s;^r^a^t^h^e^r
^C^eⁿ^t^ral^Eu^rek^a^r^e^q^uⁱ^rⁱ^{ng no}^n-e^sse^ntⁱ^a^l^go^l^d^{it so}^{ught o}ⁿ^ly^to^fr^e^e^up^e^sse^ntia^{l e}^q^uip^m^eⁿ^t^aⁿ^d^m^a^np^o^w^e^r^fo^r^c^r^itic^a^l
^Mⁱⁿⁱ^{ng Co}^.^,³⁵⁷^miⁿ^e^s^t^o^c^l^o^s^e^w^a^r^tim^e^u^s^e^s^{. Su}^ch^{a tem}^p^o^r^ar^y^r^e^strⁱ^ctioⁿ^d^u^rⁱⁿ^g^w^a^r^tim^{e is n}^o^{t a}
^U^.^S^.^{155 (1958)}^t^a^ki^ng.
^T^ee-^Hit-^T^oⁿ^R^e^m^o^v^a^l^by^U^.^S^.^of^tⁱ^m^ber^N^o^t^a^ki^ng.^P^e^r^mⁱ^ssi^ve^Iⁿ^dⁱ^aⁿ^o^c^c^u^p^a^nc^y^—^i.^e^.^,^o^c^c^u^p^a^nc^y^no^t
^Iⁿ^dⁱ^an^{s v}^.^Un^ited^f^r^om^certain^In^dian^-^o^ccu^pied^s^p^ecifⁱ^cally^recogⁿⁱ^{zed by}^C^oⁿ^g^r^es^s^as^ow^ne^r^s^hⁱ^{p — m}^a^y^be
^S^t^at^es^{, 348 U}^.^S.^lan^d^{s in}^A^l^ask^a^e^x^tⁱ^ngui^she^d^wⁱ^t^h^o^u^t^c^o^m^p^eⁿ^sa^tⁱ^o^n.
^{272 (1955)}
^Un^{ited States}^v^.^Destru^ctioⁿ^b^y^{U.S. arm}^y^o^f^N^o^t^a^kⁱⁿ^g^.^Wartⁱ^m^e^des^t^ru^ctⁱ^oⁿ^of^pri^v^at^{e propert}^y^by^U^.^S^.^t^o^prev^en^t
^Ca^lt^e^x^p^r^iv^{ate o}^{il ter}^mⁱⁿ^a^l^{, to}^im^mⁱⁿ^eⁿ^t^captu^{re by}^an^adv^aⁿ^c^ing^eⁿ^em^y^is^ex^ception^{to tak}ⁱⁿ^g
^(P^hⁱ^lⁱ^ppiⁿ^e^s⁾^{, In}^c.,^prev^en^{t its}^capt^u^{re by}^clau^s^e^.
^{344 U}^.^S^.¹⁴⁹^a^d^va^ncⁱ^{ng e}ⁿ^e^m^y
⁽¹⁹⁵²⁾
^Un^{ited States}^v^.^T^e^m^porary^s^e^izu^r^e^an^d^T^a^ki^ng^o^c^c^u^r^r^e^d^.^G^o^ve^rⁿ^m^e^nt^a^sse^r^t^e^d^t^o^t^a^l^d^o^mⁱⁿⁱ^o^{n a}ⁿ^d^c^o^nt^r^o^l
^P^e^w^{ee C}^o^{al C}^o^.,^operatⁱ^oⁿ^of^coal^mⁱⁿ^e^by^ov^{er th}^{e m}ⁱⁿ^e^s^.
^{341 U}^.^S^.¹¹⁴^U.S.^du^rin^g^w^a^rtim^{e to}^av^ert
⁽¹⁹⁵¹⁾^strⁱ^ke
^Un^{ited States}^v^.^Buⁱ^l^dⁱ^{ng of}^f^e^deral^dam^t^h^at^{Need n}^o^{t reach}^takⁱⁿ^g^qu^es^tion^,^sⁱⁿ^ce^C^oⁿ^g^r^es^s^h^a^sⁿ^o^{t attem}^p^{ted to}
^G^e^r^l^ach^Lⁱ^ve^eⁿ^d^e^d^se^a^s^oⁿ^a^lⁱ^nund^a^tⁱ^oⁿ^o^f^tak^e^{, o}^r^au^th^o^r^ized^th^{e tak}ⁱⁿ^g^w^ith^o^u^{t co}^m^p^en^satioⁿ^,^o^f^aⁿ^y^rⁱ^g^h^t^s
^S^t^ock^C^o^{., 339}^p^l^ain^tif^f^s^’^g^r^a^sslan^d^s^{, tu}^rⁿⁱⁿ^g^v^a^{lid u}ⁿ^d^{er s}^t^{ate law}^.

^U^.^S^.^{725 (1950)}^th^em^p^a^r^c^h^e^d

^C^a^s^e^A^c^ti^on^attack^ed^Hol^dⁱⁿ^g/^rati^on^al^e
^Un^{ited States}^v^.^F^l^oodⁱⁿ^g^of^l^aⁿ^d^by^f^e^deral^W^h^eⁿ^go^ve^rⁿ^m^e^nt^t^a^ke^{s b}^y^a^c^o^ntⁱ^nui^{ng p}^r^o^c^e^{ss o}^f^p^h^y^sⁱ^c^a^l^e^v^eⁿ^t^s^,
^Dⁱ^ckⁱⁿ^s^oⁿ^,³³¹^d^a^mⁱⁿ^gr^a^d^ua^l^,^s^u^c^c^e^ssi^ve^owⁿ^e^{r is}ⁿ^o^{t requ}^{ired to res}^o^{rt to piecem}^{eal or prem}^atu^r^{e tak}ⁱⁿ^g
^U^.^S^.^{745 (1947)}^s^t^ag^es^actioⁿ^s^{. Date o}^f^takⁱⁿ^g^o^ccu^r^s^w^h^en^situ^atioⁿ^b^eco^m^e^{s “}^s^tab^ilized^.”
^Un^{ited States}^v^.^Fr^eq^u^eⁿ^t^f^lig^h^t^{s o}^f^m^ilitar^y^T^a^kⁱⁿ^g^occu^{rred of}^{air eas}^em^en^t.^Flig^h^t^s^ov^er^priv^{ate lan}^d^th^{at are s}^o
^C^a^u^s^by^{, 328 U}^.^S^.^aircraf^t^ov^er^c^h^ick^eⁿ^f^a^rm^at^low^an^{d f}^r^equ^eⁿ^t^as^{to be direct}^an^d^im^m^e^{diate in}^terf^eren^{ce w}^ith^u^s^e
^{256 (1946)}^lo^w^altitu^d^e^an^{d en}^j^o^y^m^en^{t of}^lan^d^ef^f^{ect a tak}ⁱⁿ^g^.
^Un^{ited States}^v^.^Raisin^g^o^f^w^a^ter^le^v^e^{l b}^y^No^takⁱⁿ^g^.^D^a^m^o^p^e^r^a^to^r^’^{s in}^ter^e^{st in}^rⁱ^v^e^r^’^{s w}^a^ter^lev^e^{l is}
^W^illo^w^Rⁱ^v^e^r^U.S.,^im^pairin^g^ef^fⁱ^cien^cy^of^su^b^o^r^dⁱⁿ^a^{te to}^p^a^r^a^m^o^uⁿ^t^au^th^o^r^ity^o^f^{U.S. to}^im^p^r^o^v^{e n}^a^vⁱ^g^a^tioⁿ^.
^P^o^w^e^r^C^o^{., 324}^u^p^s^t^ream^h^y^dro-^electric^dam
^U^.^S^.^{499 (1945)}
^Bow^l^e^s^v^.^Federal^s^t^atu^t^{e au}^th^orizin^g^N^o^t^a^kⁱⁿ^g^.^I^m^p^o^s^sⁱ^b^ility^o^f^fⁱ^xⁱⁿ^g^r^eⁿ^t^s^l^aⁿ^d^l^o^r^d^b^y^l^aⁿ^d^l^o^r^d^aⁿ^d
^W^illingha^m^,³²¹^res^t^ri^ctⁱ^oⁿ^of^ren^t^{s i}ⁿ^ex^isten^{ce o}^f^w^a^r^ar^{e g}^e^r^m^an^{e to}^coⁿ^s^titu^tioⁿ^a^l^issu^e.^No^thⁱⁿ^gⁱⁿ^act
^U^.^S^.^{503 (1944)}^“^d^ef^en^s^e^areas^”^{to lev}^e^ls^th^at^requ^ires^of^f^e^rin^g^accom^m^odation^s^f^o^{r ren}^t^{. P}^r^{ice con}^t^{rol m}^a^y^redu^ce
^{are “}^g^en^erally^{” f}^a^{ir, rath}^er^v^a^lu^{e o}^f^p^r^o^p^e^r^t^y^,^b^u^{t th}^{at d}^o^e^{s n}^o^{t m}^ean^th^er^{e is tak}ⁱⁿ^g^.
^th^an^f^a^{ir to each}^lan^d^lord
^Un^{ited States}^v^.^Raisin^g^o^f^w^a^ter^lev^e^{l b}^y^No^takⁱⁿ^g^.^Em^b^aⁿ^k^m^en^{t w}^a^{s b}^u^{ilt o}ⁿ^lo^w^-^w^a^ter^m^a^r^kⁱⁿ^b^e^d^o^f
^C^h^icag^{o, M.,}^{St. P}^.^{U.S., f}^o^r^cⁱⁿ^g^r^a^ilr^o^a^d^toⁱⁿ^cu^rⁿ^a^vi^ga^b^l^e^st^r^e^a^m^;^go^ve^rⁿ^m^e^nt^{’s na}^vi^ga^tⁱ^o^{n se}^r^vⁱ^t^u^d^{e cov}^e^rs^en^tⁱ^r^{e bed}
^&^{P. R}^aⁱ^l^r^{oad C}^o^.,^cos^t^s^to^{protect em}^ban^k^m^en^t^o^f^suc^h^str^e^a^m^{s to}^high-w^a^te^r^m^a^r^k^.
^{312 U}^.^S^.⁵⁹²
⁽¹⁹⁴¹⁾
^Dan^f^o^r^th^v^.^Un^ited^En^act^m^eⁿ^t^of^fl^{ood con}^t^rol^M^e^r^e^eⁿ^a^c^t^m^e^nt^o^f^st^a^t^ut^e^a^u^t^h^o^rⁱ^zⁱ^{ng fut}^u^r^e^a^c^tⁱ^o^{n c}^a^nno^t^b^e^t^a^ki^ng,
^States^{, 30}^{8 U.S.}^s^t^atu^t^{e au}^th^orizin^g^c^oⁿ^-^sⁱⁿ^c^e^“[^s]^uch^l^e^gⁱ^s^l^atⁱ^oⁿ^m^a^y^{be repeal}^{ed or m}^odi^fⁱ^{ed, or}
^{271 (1939)}^d^e^mⁿ^atioⁿ^ap^p^r^o^p^r^iatioⁿ^s^m^a^y^f^a^il.”
^Un^{ited States}^v^.^En^act^m^eⁿ^t^of^f^l^{ood con}^t^rol^N^o^t^a^kⁱⁿ^g^of^l^aⁿ^d^wⁱ^t^hⁱⁿ^f^l^oodw^ay^.^Im^prov^em^en^t^s^uⁿ^d^{er act}^h^a^{d n}^o^t
^Sp^on^en^barg^er^,³⁰⁸^ac^t^an^{d operat}ⁱ^oⁿ^s^pu^rs^u^aⁿ^tⁱⁿ^c^r^e^a^s^e^d^f^l^{ood hazar}^d^.^A^l^s^o^,^g^o^v^e^rⁿ^m^eⁿ^t^e^f^f^o^r^t^t^o^l^e^s^s^eⁿ^f^l^ood
^U^.^S^.^{256 (1939)}^{to act}^h^azard^dⁱ^dⁿ^o^{t co}ⁿ^s^titu^{te tak}ⁱⁿ^g^o^f^th^o^s^{e lan}^d^{s n}^o^{t af}^f^o^rd^ed^{as m}^u^ch
^prot^ectⁱ^oⁿ^as^ot^h^e^rs^.
^C^hⁱ^ppew^a^In^di^an^s^{Federal s}^t^atu^t^{e crea}^tⁱⁿ^g^T^a^kⁱⁿ^g^occu^{rred. Mere}^en^actm^eⁿ^t^de^p^r^iv^ed^tr^ib^{e o}^f^{all its b}^eⁿ^e^fⁱ^cial
^v^.^Un^ited^States^,ⁿ^a^tioⁿ^a^{l f}^o^r^e^{st o}ⁿ^lan^d^h^e^ldⁱⁿ^ter^e^{st in}^th^{e lan}^d^.
^{305 U}^.^S^.⁴⁷⁹^b^y^{U.S. in}^tr^u^s^{t f}^o^r^tr^ib^e
⁽¹⁹³⁹⁾
^Sho^s^ho^ne^T^rⁱ^b^e^v.^Fe^d^e^r^a^l^sa^nc^tⁱ^o^{n of}^A^r^a^p^a^h^o^e^Fed^e^r^a^l^g^u^a^r^d^ian^s^hⁱ^p^o^f^tr^ib^{al lan}^d^d^o^e^{s n}^o^{t in}^clu^d^{e r}^e^q^u^irⁱⁿ^g^tr^ib^{e to}
^Uⁿⁱ^t^e^{d S}^t^at^es^,²⁹⁹^occu^pan^c^y^of^l^aⁿ^d^promⁱ^s^ed^w^h^ich^ex^clu^s^iv^{e occu}^pan^c^y^ha^s^b^een^pledg^e^{d to s}^h^{are lan}^d^w^ith
^U^.^S^.^{476 (1937)}^b^y^t^r^e^a^t^y^{to ex}^clu^sⁱ^v^e^an^oth^e^{r tribe abs}^eⁿ^t^com^p^en^s^a^tion^.
^occu^pan^c^y^of^S^h^os^h^oⁿ^e
^L^o^uⁱ^svⁱ^{lle J}^oⁱⁿ^t^Fed^e^r^a^{l statu}^t^e^elimⁱⁿ^atin^g^T^a^kⁱⁿ^g^occu^{rred. A}^c^t^as^applⁱ^e^{d depri}^v^e^s^m^o^rt^g^a^g^{ee ban}^k^ofⁱ^t^s
^St^o^c^{k La}^nd^B^a^nk^c^e^r^t^aⁱ^{n r}ⁱ^ght^{s o}^f^m^o^r^t^ga^ge^e^s^p^r^o^p^e^r^t^y^rⁱ^g^h^t^{s u}ⁿ^d^er^{state law}^to^r^e^tain^lien^uⁿ^{til in}^d^e^b^t^edⁿ^e^{ss is p}^a^id^,
^v^.^R^a^df^{ord, 295}ⁱⁿ^p^r^o^p^e^r^t^y^h^e^ld^{as secu}^r^ity^t^o^r^e^a^lⁱ^z^e^oⁿ^t^h^e^se^c^u^rⁱ^t^y^t^h^r^o^{ugh j}^u^dⁱ^cⁱ^a^l^p^u^b^lⁱ^c^s^a^l^e^,^t^o^c^o^nt^r^o^l
^U^.^S^.^{555 (1935)}^propert^y^du^riⁿ^g^def^a^u^l^t^peri^{od, et}^{c. L}^o^s^s^of^t^h^ese^rⁱ^ght^{s ef}^f^ect^s
^su^b^s^tan^tial^im^p^a^ir^m^eⁿ^t^o^f^th^{e secu}^r^ity^{. A}^c^{t h}^a^{s tak}^eⁿ^f^r^o^m^b^aⁿ^k^,^an^d
^gi^ve^{n t}^o^m^o^r^t^ga^go^r^,^rⁱ^ght^sⁱⁿ^sp^e^cⁱ^fi^c^p^r^o^p^e^r^t^y^w^hⁱ^c^{h a}^r^e^o^f^sub^s^t^a^ntⁱ^a^l
^va^l^u^e^.
^R^a^ilr^o^a^d^Req^u^ir^ed^f^e^d^e^r^a^{l r}^e^tir^em^en^t^Du^{e proces}^s^vⁱ^olation^occu^{rred. Un}^{der s}^c^h^e^m^e^{, a railroad m}^u^s^t^{, in}
^Retir^em^en^{t B}^d^{. v}^.^sch^e^m^e^f^o^rⁱⁿ^ter^s^tate^car^rⁱ^er^s^ad^d^itioⁿ^to^m^a^kⁱⁿ^g^{its o}^wⁿ^coⁿ^t^rⁱ^b^u^tioⁿ^s^to^p^eⁿ^s^ioⁿ^f^uⁿ^d^{, act as}
^A^ltoⁿ^Rai^l^r^o^adⁱⁿ^s^u^{rer of}^con^t^ri^bu^tⁱ^oⁿ^s^requⁱ^r^{ed of}^ot^h^e^{r rai}^l^r^oads^an^{d rai}^l^r^oad
^C^o^{., 295 U}^.^S^.³³⁰^e^m^p^l^o^y^e^e^s^.^T^h^o^{ugh p}^r^o^p^e^r^t^y^o^f^r^aⁱ^l^r^o^a^d^sⁱ^s^d^e^dⁱ^c^a^t^e^d^t^o^p^u^b^lⁱ^c^use^,
⁽¹⁹³⁵⁾^{it r}^e^m^aⁱⁿ^{s th}^{e p}^r^iv^{ate p}^r^o^p^e^r^t^y^o^f^{its o}^wⁿ^e^r^s^{, an}^d^m^a^yⁿ^o^{t b}^e^tak^eⁿ
^w^ith^o^u^{t co}^m^p^en^satioⁿ^.

^C^a^s^e^A^c^ti^on^attack^ed^Hol^dⁱⁿ^g/^rati^on^al^e
^Un^{ited States}^v^.^P^o^r^tioⁿ^o^f^tr^eaty^lan^d^{s tak}^eⁿ^F^e^d^e^r^a^{l g}^u^a^r^d^ian^s^hⁱ^p^o^f^tr^ib^{al lan}^d^d^o^e^{s n}^o^{t allo}^w^ap^p^r^o^p^r^iatioⁿ^b^y
^C^r^eek^Nation^,²⁹⁵^by^s^u^rv^ey^{error of}^U.S.,^{U.S. w}^ith^o^u^{t co}^m^p^en^satioⁿ^.
^U^.^S^.^{103 (1935)}^gi^ve^{n t}^o^aⁿ^o^t^he^r^t^rⁱ^b^e
^N^o^r^m^aⁿ^v^.^B^.^&^Fe^d^e^r^a^{l m}^aⁿ^d^{ate th}^at^No^takⁱⁿ^g^.^{Relies en}^tir^ely^oⁿ^L^e^gal^T^e^nder^C^a^s^e^s^,ⁱⁿ^fra^pag^e^19.
^{O. R}^d^{. C}^o^.,²⁹⁴^o^b^lig^atioⁿ^s^b^e^dⁱ^sch^a^r^g^eab^le
^U^.^S^.^{240 (1935)}^b^y^p^a^y^m^eⁿ^{t o}^f^leg^a^{l ten}^d^er^,
^voⁱ^dⁱ^{ng go}^l^d^c^l^a^u^seⁱⁿ^p^r^e^-
^ex^is^tin^g^priv^{ate con}^t^ract
^M^u^llen^A^c^q^u^isitioⁿ^b^y^{U.S. o}^f^lan^d^s,^N^o^t^a^kⁱⁿ^g^of^bon^ds^{. N}^o^lⁱ^eⁿ^rem^aⁱⁿ^{ed on}^l^aⁿ^d^at^tⁱ^m^{e of}^pu^rch^a^s^e^by
^B^e^ne^vo^l^e^nt^Co^r^p^.^f^r^u^s^tr^atin^g^th^e^r^e^p^l^en^ish^m^en^t^{U.S., an}^d^f^r^u^s^tr^atioⁿ^o^f^ab^ility^to^r^e^p^l^en^ish^f^uⁿ^dⁱ^s^m^e^r^e^ly
^v^.^{United States}^,^o^f^t^o^wⁿ^{’s fund}^fo^r^r^e^p^a^y^m^eⁿ^t^c^o^nse^q^ue^ntⁱ^a^l^d^a^m^a^ge^,^he^nc^e^no^nc^o^m^p^e^nsa^b^l^e^.
^{290 U}^.^S^.⁸⁹^of^bon^ds
⁽¹⁹³³⁾
^Iⁿ^t^e^rⁿ^atioⁿ^a^{l P}^a^p^e^r^W^a^r^tim^{e r}^e^q^u^isitioⁿ^b^y^U.S.^T^a^kⁱⁿ^g^occu^{rred. Fact th}^{at requ}^is^itⁱ^oⁿ^occu^{rred by}^con^t^{ract is}^ofⁿ^o
^Co^{. v}^.^Un^ited^of^al^l^pow^{er produ}^ci^bl^{e by}^m^o^m^e^nt^,^si^nc^e^p^o^w^e^r^c^o^m^p^aⁿ^y^w^a^{s b}^o^und^und^e^r^go^ve^rⁿⁱⁿ^g
^S^t^at^es^{, 282 U}^.^S^.^pow^{er co}^m^p^an^y^f^r^om^w^a^ter^r^e^q^u^isitioⁿ^statu^t^{e to}^o^b^e^y^.^P^a^p^e^r^co^m^p^an^y^h^a^d^w^a^ter^rⁱ^g^h^t^{, a p}^r^o^p^e^r^t^y
^{399 (1931)}ⁱⁿ^can^{al, cu}^ttin^g^of^f^p^a^per^rig^h^t^,^to^u^s^{e of}^can^{al w}^a^{ter, an}^{d f}^e^{deral action}^termⁱⁿ^ated^th^at^rig^h^tⁱⁿ
^com^p^an^y^’^s^leas^{e rig}^h^t^{to u}^s^e^{its en}^tir^ety^.^Omn^ia^Co^mmercia^l^C^o^rp^{., in}^fra^pag^e^{14, can}^be
^portⁱ^oⁿ^of^s^u^ch^w^a^t^e^r^dⁱ^stinguishe^d^,^sinc^e^he^r^e^go^ve^rⁿ^m^e^{nt to}^o^k^the^p^r^o^p^e^r^t^y^tha^t^p^e^titio^ne^r
^o^wⁿ^e^d^,^r^a^th^er^th^an^m^e^r^e^ly^f^r^u^s^tr^atin^g^f^u^tu^r^e^d^e^liv^er^{ies u}ⁿ^d^er^coⁿ^t^r^act.
^N^e^ct^ow^v^.^Cⁱ^t^y^of^Eu^clid^-^s^ty^{le co}^m^p^r^e^h^eⁿ^s^iv^e^Du^{e proces}^s^vⁱ^olation^occu^{rred. B}^ecau^s^e^ofⁱⁿ^du^s^t^{rial u}^s^es^{to w}^h^ich
^C^a^m^b^ri^dg^{e, 277}^z^oⁿⁱ^{ng o}^r^dⁱ^na^nc^e^,^a^s^a^p^p^lⁱ^e^d^ad^j^oⁱⁿⁱⁿ^g^lan^d^{s o}ⁿ^tw^o^sid^e^s^ar^e^d^e^v^o^ted^,^su^b^j^{ect lan}^d^h^a^{s little v}^a^lu^e
^U^.^S^.^{183 (1928)}^t^o^d^e^sⁱ^gⁿ^a^t^e^portⁱ^oⁿ^of^f^o^r^lim^ited^p^u^r^p^o^s^e^s^p^e^r^m^ittedⁱⁿ^{a r}^e^sid^eⁿ^{tial zo}ⁿ^e^{. L}^aⁿ^d^-^u^se
^p^l^aⁱ^ntⁱ^{ff’s t}^r^a^c^t^r^e^si^d^e^ntⁱ^a^l^res^t^ric^tion^canⁿ^o^{t be im}^pos^{ed w}^h^{ere, as}^h^e^{re, it does}ⁿ^o^{t bear}
^su^b^s^tan^{tial r}^e^latioⁿ^to^p^u^b^lic^h^ealth^{, saf}^e^ty^{, m}^o^r^a^{ls, o}^r^g^eⁿ^e^r^a^{l w}^e^lf^ar^e.
^Miller^v^.^Sch^o^en^e,^{State or}^{der th}^{at cedar trees}^{State did n}^o^{t ex}^{ceed du}^{e proces}^s^{or proper bou}ⁿ^d^s^of^{police pow}^er.
^{276 U}^.^S^.²⁷²ⁱⁿ^f^ected^w^ithⁱⁿ^f^e^ctio^u^s^r^u^st^S^t^at^{e m}^a^y^{order des}^t^ru^ctⁱ^oⁿ^of^on^e^c^l^as^s^of^pri^v^at^{e propert}^y^t^o^s^a^v^e
⁽¹⁹²⁸⁾^di^s^eas^{e be}^c^u^t^dowⁿ^,^s^o^as^an^oth^e^{r of}^g^r^{eater v}^a^lu^{e to pu}^blic.
^no^t^t^o^eⁿ^d^a^nge^r^ne^a^r^b^y^c^a^sh
^crop
^Villag^e^o^f^Eu^clid^C^o^m^p^r^e^he^nsⁱ^v^{e zon}ⁱⁿ^g^N^o^vi^o^l^a^tⁱ^o^{n o}^f^d^u^e^p^r^o^c^e^ss.^Zoⁿⁱ^ng,^a^s^a^ge^ne^r^a^l^ma^t^t^e^r^,ⁱ^s
^v^.^A^m^b^l^{er R}^ealty^ordiⁿ^aⁿ^c^e^reas^on^{able u}^s^{e of}^police^-^p^o^w^{er to}^{deal w}^ithⁱⁿ^creasⁱⁿ^g^l^y^crow^ded
^C^o^{., 272 U}^.^{S. 365}^u^r^b^aⁿ^coⁿ^d^itioⁿ^s^{. Fact th}^atⁿ^oⁿ^-^o^f^f^eⁿ^s^iv^{e as w}^e^{ll as n}^o^xⁱ^o^u^{s u}^s^{es ar}^e
⁽¹⁹²⁶⁾^b^a^r^r^ed^f^r^o^m^{a zo}ⁿ^e^{is n}^o^{t f}^a^tal.
^Ev^erar^d’^s^Fed^e^r^a^l^statu^t^{e p}^r^o^h^ib^itin^g^N^o^t^a^kⁱⁿ^g^of^brew^ery^’^s^propert^y^.^(N^{o f}^u^rt^h^e^{r di}^s^c^u^s^sⁱ^on^.)
^B^r^ew^eries^v^.^Day^,^doct^o^rs^f^r^om^pre^s^cri^bⁱⁿ^g
^{265 U}^.^S^.⁵⁴⁵ⁱⁿ^to^xⁱ^catin^g^m^a^{lt liq}^u^o^r^s^f^o^r
⁽¹⁹²⁴⁾^m^e^di^ciⁿ^a^l^pu^rpos^es
^Brook^s^-^S^can^l^oⁿ^W^a^r^tim^{e r}^e^q^u^isitioⁿ^b^y^U.S.^T^a^ki^{ng o}^c^c^u^r^r^e^d^.^U^.^S^.^p^u^tⁱ^t^s^e^l^{f i}ⁿ^p^l^aⁱ^ntⁱ^{ff’s sho}^e^{s a}ⁿ^d^a^p^p^r^o^p^rⁱ^a^t^e^d
^Co^r^p^{. v}^.^Un^ited^o^f^{all sh}^ip^{s u}ⁿ^d^er^t^oⁱ^t^s^owⁿ^u^s^{e all th}^{e rig}^h^t^s^an^{d ben}^e^f^its^th^{at an}^as^sⁱ^gⁿ^{ee of}^t^h^e
^S^t^at^{es, 265 U}^.^S^.^coⁿ^s^tr^u^c^tioⁿ^b^y^sh^ip^y^a^r^d^an^d^con^t^{ract w}^o^u^l^d^h^a^v^e^h^a^{d — s}^u^ch^as^{credit f}^o^{r pay}^m^en^ts^already^m^a^de
^{106 (1924)}^r^e^lated^coⁿ^t^r^{acts, in}^clu^dⁱⁿ^g^b^y^p^l^aⁱ^ntⁱ^ff.^U^.^S.^so^ught^t^o^eⁿ^fo^r^c^e^t^h^e^c^o^nt^r^a^c^t^.^T^hⁱ^s^c^a^s^eⁱ^s^e^a^sⁱ^l^y
^p^l^aⁱ^ntⁱ^{ff’s p}^u^r^c^ha^se^c^o^nt^r^a^c^t^dⁱ^stⁱ^ngui^she^d^fr^o^m^Omn^ia^C^o^mmercia^{l C}^o^.,ⁱⁿ^fra^pag^e^{14, w}^h^{ere U}^.^S^.
^f^r^u^s^{trated, bu}^{t did n}^o^{t tak}^e^ov^{er, th}^{e con}^t^ract.
^O^mⁿⁱ^a^C^o^mme^r^-^W^a^r^tim^{e r}^e^q^u^isitioⁿ^b^y^U.S.^N^o^t^a^ki^ng.^T^h^o^{ugh c}^o^nt^r^a^c^t^rⁱ^ght^{s a}^r^e^p^r^o^p^e^r^t^y^,^U^.^S.^dⁱ^d^no^t^“t^a^k^e^”
^cial^C^o^{. v}^.^Un^ited^of^s^t^{eel plan}^t’^s^en^tire^ou^tpu^t^,^th^o^s^{e r}ⁱ^g^h^t^{s, b}^u^{t m}^e^r^e^ly^f^r^u^s^tr^ated^th^eir^ex^er^{cise. T}^h^{e Co}ⁿ^s^titu^tioⁿ
^S^t^at^es^{, 261 U}^.^S^.^p^r^e^c^l^udⁱ^{ng p}^l^aⁱ^ntⁱ^{ff fr}^o^m^d^o^e^{s no}^t^d^e^m^a^nd^c^o^m^p^eⁿ^sa^tⁱ^o^{n fo}^r^suc^h^c^o^nse^q^ue^ntⁱ^a^l^ha^r^m^.

^{502 (1923)}^bu^yⁱⁿ^g^s^t^{eel at f}^a^v^o^rable
^p^rⁱ^c^e^uⁿ^d^er^preex^is^tin^g
^con^t^{ract w}^ith^plan^t

^C^a^s^e^A^c^ti^on^attack^ed^Hol^dⁱⁿ^g/^rati^on^al^e
^P^e^nnsy^l^vaⁿⁱ^a^Co^a^l^{State law}^barrin^g^{coal m}ⁱⁿⁱⁿ^g^T^a^kⁱⁿ^g^occu^{rred. “}^W^h^{ile property}^m^a^y^{be reg}^u^l^{ated to a}^c^e^r^t^aⁱⁿ
^Co^.^v.^M^a^ho^n,²⁶⁰^th^{at m}ⁱ^g^h^t^cau^s^e^s^u^bs^iden^ce^ex^ten^t^{, if}^r^e^g^u^l^atioⁿ^g^o^{es to}^o^f^a^r^{it w}^ill^b^e^r^eco^gⁿⁱ^zed^as^{a tak}ⁱⁿ^g^.^{” B}^y
^U^.^S^.^{393 (1922)}^o^f^o^v^er^lyⁱⁿ^g^lan^d^,^ap^p^licab^le^elimⁱⁿ^atin^g^rⁱ^g^h^t^to^mⁱⁿ^e^co^{al, state law}^leav^es^t^h^e^mⁱⁿ^e^r^a^{l estate}
^on^ly^w^h^{ere s}^u^rf^{ace es}^tate^owⁿ^e^{r w}^ithⁿ^o^thⁱⁿ^g^.^Moreov^er,^becau^s^e^s^t^{ate law}^applies^on^ly^w^h^ere
^owⁿ^e^{r i}^s^di^f^f^e^ren^t^f^r^om^s^u^rf^{ace is}ⁱⁿ^dif^f^e^ren^t^owⁿ^e^rs^hⁱ^{p, it ben}^e^f^its^{a n}^a^rrow^priv^{ate in}^teres^t
^mⁱⁿ^e^r^a^{l estate o}^wⁿ^e^r^rath^{er th}^an^{a broad pu}^{blic on}^e.^Aⁿ^{d s}^u^rf^{ace ow}ⁿ^e^rs^h^a^{d ex}^pres^s^l^y
^con^t^{racted aw}^ay^th^{eir rig}^h^t^{to s}^u^bj^acen^{t s}^u^pport.

III. Appropriations and Physical Takings Only:
1870 to 1922
The 1870s marked the Supreme Court’s first clear acknowledgment that the
Takings Clause is not only a constraint on the government’s formal exercise of
eminent domain, but the basis as well for suits by property owners challenging
government conduct not attended by such formal exercise. However, until 1922 the
Court believed such “inverse condemnation” suits to be confined to government
appropriations or physical invasions of property. Cases involving the impacts of
government water projects (flooding, reduced access, etc.) were typical. When cases
involving mere restrictions on the use of property reached the Court, they were tested
under due process, scope of the police power, or ultra vires theories.
^C^a^s^e^A^c^ti^on^attack^ed^Hol^dⁱⁿ^g/^rati^on^al^e
^P^o^r^t^s^m^out^h^P^o^sitio^{ning o}^f^m^ilita^r^y^guns^Occasⁱ^o^na^l^fⁱ^rin^g^s^an^{d oth}^e^{r ev}^iden^{ce s}^h^ow^{ed th}^{at U.S. m}ⁱ^g^h^t^h^a^v^e
^H^a^{rbor L}^aⁿ^d^&^f^o^r^fⁱ^rin^g^ov^{er priv}^{ate res}^o^rtⁱⁿ^st^a^l^l^e^d^{guns no}^t^si^m^p^l^y^a^s^w^a^r^tⁱ^m^e^d^e^fe^nse^s^,^b^u^t^t^o^sub^o^r^dⁱ^na^t^e
^Ho^{tel C}^o^{. v}^.ⁱ^s^l^a^{nd, an}^{d act}^u^a^l^fⁱ^riⁿ^g^on^reso^rt^to^rig^h^t^o^f^g^o^v^e^rn^m^eⁿ^t^to^fⁱ^{re acro}^{ss it at w}^{ill, in}^p^eacetim^e.^If
^Uⁿⁱ^t^e^{d S}^t^at^es^,²⁶⁰^s^e^v^e^{ral occas}^ion^s^s^o^{, ef}^f^ects^an^{appropriation}^of^{a s}^e^rv^itu^{de an}^{d requ}^ires^com^p^en^s^a^tion^.
^U^.^S^.^{327 (1922)}
^Co^rⁿ^{eli v}^.^Mo^o^r^e,^F^e^deral^ref^u^s^a^l^uⁿ^d^er^No^takⁱⁿ^g^.^A^p^p^l^icatioⁿ^o^f^Natioⁿ^a^{l P}^r^o^h^ib^itioⁿ^A^c^{t to}^p^l^ain^tif^f^s^,
^{257 U}^.^S^.⁴⁹¹^Natioⁿ^a^{l P}^r^o^h^ib^itioⁿ^A^c^{t to}^d^e^sp^{ite th}^eir^p^u^r^c^h^a^{se o}^f^th^{e liq}^u^o^r^p^r^io^r^to^{its en}^actm^eⁿ^t^{, d}^o^e^{s n}^o^t
⁽¹⁹²²⁾^allo^w^p^l^ain^tif^f^s^to^r^e^m^o^v^e^ef^f^{ect a tak}ⁱⁿ^g^.^T^a^kⁱⁿ^g^s^arg^u^m^en^{t is}^“^aⁿ^s^w^e^{red ... by}^t^h^e^N^a^tⁱ^onal
^p^u^r^c^ha^se^d^lⁱ^q^u^o^{r barr}^e^l^{s fr}^o^m^Pr^ohi^bi^tⁱ^{on C}^a^s^e^s^{, 253 U}^.^S^.^{350, 387.”}
^w^a^r^e^ho^use^,^d^e^spⁱ^t^e^p^r^e^-^A^c^t
^pu^rch^a^s^e
^B^l^o^c^{k v.}^Hⁱ^r^s^h,^St^a^t^ut^e^a^l^l^o^wⁱ^{ng t}^e^naⁿ^t^{s t}^o^No^takⁱⁿ^g^.^Valid^ity^o^f^r^a^{te r}^e^g^u^l^atioⁿⁱⁿ^th^{e p}^u^b^{lic in}^t^e^r^e^s^tⁱ^s^w^e^ll
^{256 U}^.^S^.¹³⁵^r^e^m^a^{in in}^p^o^sse^ssioⁿ^a^t^sa^m^e^settled^.^Statu^t^e^{is j}^u^stif^ied^oⁿ^ly^{as tem}^p^o^r^ar^y^m^easu^r^{e r}^e^lated^to^w^a^r
⁽¹⁹²¹⁾^ren^t^u^pon^ex^pi^ratⁱ^oⁿ^of^l^eas^e^ef^f^o^{rt. L}^aⁿ^d^{lord is}^as^s^u^{red of}^ren^t^s^th^{at are “}^r^eas^on^able.”
^Bo^th^w^e^{ll v}^.^Un^ited^G^o^v^e^rn^m^eⁿ^t^f^l^oodiⁿ^g^o^f^No^takⁱⁿ^g^{as to}^{cattle o}^r^b^u^sin^e^{ss. T}^h^{e U.}^S^.ⁿ^eed^oⁿ^ly^p^a^y^f^o^r
^S^t^at^es^{, 254 U}^.^S^.^p^r^iv^a^t^{e lan}^d^{, f}^o^r^cⁱⁿ^g^{sale o}^f^p^r^o^p^e^r^t^y^{it actu}^a^lly^tak^e^s.
^{321 (1920)}^{cattle at lo}^w^p^r^{ices an}^d
^d^e^str^o^yⁱ^{ng b}^u^sine^ss
^W^a^{lls v}^.^Mid^l^an^d^S^t^at^{e ban on}ⁿ^oⁿ^-^h^eatⁱⁿ^g^Wi^t^hⁱⁿ^s^t^at^e’^s^polⁱ^{ce pow}^{er an}^{d does}ⁿ^o^t^t^a^k^e^propert^y^wⁱ^t^h^ou^t^du^e
^C^a^rbon^C^o^{., 254}^use^s^o^f^na^t^u^r^a^l^ga^s^,^fo^r^cⁱⁿ^g^proces^s^.^{State m}^a^y^cu^{rtail ex}^trav^ag^an^{t u}^s^es^of^{a n}^a^tu^{ral res}^o^u^r^{ce in}
^U^.^S^.^{300 (1920)}^closⁱⁿ^g^of^plan^{t th}^{at u}^s^{ed g}^a^s^w^hⁱ^c^{h m}^a^ny^ha^ve^rⁱ^ght^s,^lⁱ^mⁱ^tⁱ^{ng o}ⁿ^e^p^e^r^s^oⁿ^{’s r}ⁱ^ght^{s i}ⁿ^o^r^d^e^r^t^h^a^t
^{to m}^a^k^e^carbon^black^o^t^h^e^r^s^ma^{y e}ⁿ^j^o^{y t}^h^eⁱ^r^s^.
^J^a^c^o^b^Ruppert^,^{Federal s}^t^atu^t^{e ex}^ten^dⁱⁿ^g^N^o^t^a^ki^ng.^A^sⁱⁿ^Ha^miltoⁿ^,ⁱⁿ^fra^pag^e^{16, t}^h^{ere w}^a^sⁿ^o^appropri^a^tⁱ^oⁿ
^In^{c., v}^.^C^a^f^f^e^y^,^w^a^rtⁱ^m^{e ban}^on^dom^es^tⁱ^c^of^pri^v^a^t^e^p^r^opert^y^,^bu^t^m^e^rel^y^{a l}^e^s^s^eⁿⁱⁿ^g^of^v^a^l^u^{e du}^{e t}^o^a
^{251 U}^.^S^.²⁶⁴^liq^u^o^r^{sales to}^b^eer^{, in}^clu^dⁱⁿ^g^p^e^r^m^issib^l^{e r}^e^strⁱ^ctioⁿ^oⁿ^{its u}^s^{e. N}^o^rⁱ^s^{it sig}ⁿⁱ^fⁱ^can^{t th}^{at b}^aⁿ^to^o^k
⁽¹⁹²⁰⁾^s^u^pplⁱ^e^s^on^h^aⁿ^d^at^ef^f^{ect im}^m^e^diately^.
^en^actm^eⁿ^t
^H^a^m^iltoⁿ^v^.^F^e^{deral s}^t^atu^t^{e i}^m^p^o^sⁱⁿ^g^N^o^t^a^kⁱⁿ^g^.^T^h^{ere w}^a^sⁿ^o^appropri^a^tⁱ^oⁿ^f^o^r^p^u^b^lⁱ^c^pu^rpos^es^.
^K^eⁿ^t^uc^ky^w^a^r^tim^{e b}^aⁿ^oⁿ^d^o^m^estic^M^o^r^e^o^v^e^r^,^st^a^t^ut^e^ga^ve^p^l^aⁱ^ntⁱ^{ff ni}^ne^m^o^nt^{hs a}^f^t^e^r^eⁿ^a^c^t^m^e^nt^t^o^se^l^l
^Distille^rⁱ^e^s^&^liq^u^o^r^sales,ⁱⁿ^clu^dⁱⁿ^g^liq^u^o^r^,^aⁿ^dⁱ^m^p^o^sedⁿ^o^r^e^strⁱ^ctioⁿ^{at an}^y^tim^{e o}ⁿ^ex^p^o^r^{t. Fin}^a^lly^,
^Wa^re^h^o^us^e^C^o^.,^sup^p^lie^{s o}ⁿ^haⁿ^d^a^t^res^t^riction^s^h^e^{re are les}^s^s^e^v^e^{re th}^an^on^es^u^p^h^e^{ld in}^s^t^{ate tak}ⁱⁿ^g^s^cas^es
^{251 U}^.^S^.¹⁴⁶^en^actm^eⁿ^t^uⁿ^d^{er Fou}^r^teen^th^A^m^en^dm^en^t.

⁽¹⁹¹⁹⁾

^C^a^s^e^A^c^ti^on^attack^ed^Hol^dⁱⁿ^g/^rati^on^al^e
^C^o^rⁿ^Produ^ct^s^S^t^at^e^f^{ood an}^{d dru}^g^l^a^w^N^o^t^a^ki^ng.^T^h^o^{ugh p}^l^aⁱ^ntⁱ^{ff’s sy}^r^u^pⁱ^s^a^p^r^o^p^rⁱ^e^t^a^r^y^f^{ood, m}^a^de^uⁿ^d^er
^Re^fiⁿⁱ^{ng Co}^.^v.^r^e^q^u^irⁱⁿ^g^th^{at tab}^l^{e sy}^r^u^p^{a s}^{ecret f}^o^rm^u^l^{a, th}^{ere is}ⁿ^o^con^s^titu^tion^a^{l rig}^h^t^{to s}^e^{ll g}^oods^w^ith^ou^t
^Eddy^{, 249 U}^.^S^.^m^a^nufa^c^t^ur^e^r^a^ffi^{x l}^a^b^e^l^s^oⁿ^gⁱ^vⁱⁿ^gⁱⁿ^f^o^r^m^atioⁿ^to^p^u^r^c^h^a^ser^{as to}^w^h^{at it is th}^{at is b}^eⁱⁿ^g^so^ld^.
^{427 (1919)}^pro^d^u^ct^di^s^c^l^o^sⁱⁿ^g^Hen^{ce, can}ⁿ^o^{t be s}^a^{id th}^{at th}^{ere is}^“^t^akⁱⁿ^g^of^...^property^w^ith^ou^t^du^e
ⁱ^ngr^e^dⁱ^e^nt^s^proces^s^of^l^a^w^.^”
^Un^{ited States}^v^.^F^e^deral^l^o^ck^an^{d dam}^proj^ect^T^a^kⁱⁿ^g^of^f^l^ow^ag^{e eas}^em^en^{t occu}^rred.^G^o^ve^rn^m^eⁿ^t^’^s^rig^h^t^{to m}^a^k^e
^C^r^es^s^,^{243 U}^.^S^.^th^{at r}^a^ised^w^a^ter^a^b^o^v^eⁿ^a^vⁱ^g^a^tioⁿ^a^{l im}^p^r^o^v^e^m^eⁿ^{ts is su}^b^j^{ect to}^takⁱⁿ^g^clau^{se w}^h^enⁿ^a^tu^r^a^l
^{316 (1917)}ⁿ^a^tu^r^a^{l lev}^e^l^s^{, p}^e^rⁱ^o^dⁱ^cally^bouⁿ^d^s^of^s^t^ream^{are ex}^ceeded.
^f^l^oodiⁿ^g^pri^v^at^{e l}^aⁿ^d
^Had^a^ch^eck^v^.^O^r^dⁱ^na^nc^e^b^a^r^rⁱ^ng^b^rⁱ^c^k^P^o^lice^pow^{er n}^o^{t ex}^{ceeded. On}^ly^lim^{it on}^police^pow^er^is^th^at^itⁿ^o^t
^S^e^bas^tⁱ^aⁿ^,²³⁹^m^a^nufa^c^t^ur^eⁱⁿ^r^e^si^d^e^ntⁱ^a^l^{be ex}^ercis^e^{d arb}ⁱ^t^r^a^r^ily^{. Fact th}^{at w}^h^en^brick^m^aⁿ^u^f^actu^rⁱⁿ^g
^U^.^S^.^{394 (1915)}^sectioⁿ^o^f^city^{, alleg}^e^d^l^y^com^m^eⁿ^{ced, res}ⁱ^den^ces^on^s^u^rroundⁱ^ng^l^aⁿ^d^h^a^{d n}^o^{t y}^e^{t been}^bu^ilt,
^r^e^d^u^cⁱ^{ng si}^t^e^{’s va}^l^u^e^b^y⁹²^-^doesⁿ^o^{t av}^{ail m}^aⁿ^u^f^actu^r^er.
^1/^2%
^Rein^m^aⁿ^v^.^L^ittle^O^r^dⁱ^na^nc^e^b^a^r^rⁱ^{ng l}ⁱ^v^e^r^y^P^o^{lice pow}^{er n}^o^{t ex}^{ceeded; du}^{e proces}^sⁿ^o^{t v}ⁱ^{olated. It is}^wⁱ^t^hⁱⁿ
^R^o^ck^{, 237 U}^.^S^.^stab^{les in}^sectioⁿ^o^f^city^{police pow}^{er to}^d^{eclare th}^{at in}^certain^s^itu^ation^s^{, a ty}^{pe of}^bu^sⁱⁿ^e^s^s
^{171 (1915)}^s^h^{all be deem}^{ed a n}^uⁱ^s^aⁿ^{ce an}^{d proh}^{ibited, ev}^en^if^{it is}ⁿ^o^{t a n}^uⁱ^s^aⁿ^c^e
^p^e^r^{se, as}^loⁿ^g^as^th^{is p}^o^w^er^{is n}^o^{t ex}^er^cised^ar^b^itr^ar^ily^o^r^w^ith^uⁿ^j^u^s^t
^dⁱ^sc^rⁱ^mⁱ^na^tⁱ^o^n.
^Ric^h^a^r^d^s^v.^Harm^t^o^pr^o^p^e^rt^y^f^r^om^P^r^operty^o^w^ne^r’^sⁿ^uⁱ^s^aⁿ^{ce action}^ag^ain^s^{t railroad m}^a^y^proceed.
^W^a^s^hⁱ^ngt^oⁿ^operatⁱ^oⁿ^ofⁿ^earby^rai^l^r^oad^W^h^{ile Co}ⁿ^g^r^{ess m}^a^y^leg^a^lize^w^h^{at w}^o^u^l^d^o^t^h^e^r^w^{ise b}^e^{a p}^u^b^lic
^T^e^rmⁱⁿ^{al C}^o^.,²³³^{located, con}^s^tru^c^{ted, an}^dⁿ^uⁱ^san^{ce, it m}^a^yⁿ^o^{t im}^m^uⁿⁱ^z^e^c^oⁿ^g^r^e^s^sⁱ^oⁿ^ally^ch^ar^ter^e^d^r^a^ilr^o^a^d^f^r^o^m
^U^.^S^.^{546 (1914)}^m^aⁱⁿ^tain^ed^uⁿ^d^e^r^{acts o}^f^priv^{ate n}^uⁱ^s^aⁿ^{ce action}^s^s^o^as^{to am}^ouⁿ^t^t^o^t^a^kⁱⁿ^g^of^pri^v^at^e^propert^y^.
^Co^ngr^e^s^s^P^rⁱ^v^a^t^e^nui^sa^nc^e^s^a^m^o^untⁱ^{ng t}^o^t^a^ki^ngsⁱⁿ^th^is^con^t^ex^{t are}^th^os^e^w^h^ere
^rai^l^r^oad^operatⁱ^oⁿ^s^u^bj^ect^s^propert^y^owⁿ^e^{r t}^o^m^o^re^t^h^an^t^y^pi^calⁱⁿ^j^u^ry^,
^as^is^th^{e cas}^{e h}^e^re.
^Peabody^v^.^Uⁿⁱ^t^e^d^P^o^sitio^{ning o}^f^milita^r^y^guns^N^o^t^a^kⁱⁿ^g^.^I^f^U^.^S.^ha^dⁱⁿ^st^a^l^l^e^d^{guns t}^o^e^s^t^a^b^lⁱ^s^{h r}ⁱ^ght^t^o^fi^r^e^o^v^e^r
^S^t^at^e^s^{, 231 U}^.^S^.^w^ith^cap^ab^ility^o^f^fⁱ^rⁱⁿ^g^o^v^er^lan^d^{at w}^{ill in}^p^eacetim^{e, w}^o^u^l^d^b^e^a^takⁱⁿ^g^.^B^u^{t h}^e^{re, p}^r^{actice sh}^o^t^s
^{530 (1913)}^p^r^iv^{ate r}^e^so^r^t^islan^d^{, last}^c^aⁿ^b^e^aⁱ^m^e^d^e^l^se^w^h^e^r^e^,^aⁿ^dⁱⁿ^d^e^e^d^,^{guns ha}^ve^no^t^b^e^eⁿ^fⁱ^r^e^d^fo^r
^fⁱ^{red i}ⁿ¹⁹⁰²^m^aⁿ^y^y^ears^.^C^f^.^Por^t^s^m^out^{h H}^a^r^bor^L^{and &}^H^o^t^e^l^C^o^.^,^s^upr^a^pag^e
^16.
^{Noble State}^B^aⁿ^k^St^a^t^e^st^a^t^ut^e^r^e^q^uⁱ^rⁱ^{ng b}^a^nks^No^takⁱⁿ^g^.^A^p^u^b^{lic ad}^v^aⁿ^t^ag^{e m}^a^y^j^u^stif^y^{a sm}^{all tak}ⁱⁿ^g^o^f^p^r^iv^ate
^v^.^Hask^{ell, 2}¹⁹^to^p^a^y^a^sse^ssm^eⁿ^{t to}^fund^propert^y^f^o^{r w}^h^at^{, i}ⁿⁱ^t^sⁱ^m^m^e^di^at^{e pu}^rpos^{e, i}^s^a^p^rⁱ^v^a^t^e^u^s^{e. In}
^U^.^S^.^{104 (1911)}^d^e^sⁱ^gn^{ed to s}^ecur^e^ful^l^a^d^d^itio^n,^b^eⁿ^e^{fit c}^o^nfe^r^r^e^d^oⁿ^p^l^aⁱ^{ntiff b}^a^{nk thr}^o^{ugh this sc}^he^m^e^o^f
^repay^m^en^t^of^deposⁱ^t^s^m^u^tu^{al protection}^is^s^u^f^fⁱ^cien^{t co}^m^p^en^s^a^tioⁿ^f^o^r^co^r^r^e^lativ^{e b}^u^r^d^en
^th^{at it m}^u^{st assu}^m^e^.
^Un^{ited States}^v^.^F^l^oodiⁿ^g^f^r^om^g^o^v^e^rn^m^eⁿ^t^T^a^kⁱⁿ^g^occu^{rred. Des}^t^ru^ction^of^an^eas^em^en^t^is^as^m^u^ch^{a tak}ⁱⁿ^g^of
^Wel^c^h^,^{217 U}^.^S^.^d^a^m^,^c^u^t^tⁱ^ng^o^ff^rⁱ^ght^o^f^w^a^y^{it as is an}^ap^p^r^o^p^r^iatioⁿ^.
^{333 (1910)}
^W^e^l^c^{h v.}^Sw^a^s^e^y^,^St^a^t^e^st^a^t^ut^e^lⁱ^mⁱ^tⁱ^{ng he}ⁱ^ght^N^o^t^a^ki^ng.^H^eⁱ^ght^lⁱ^mⁱ^t^a^tⁱ^o^{n he}^r^e^,^e^v^eⁿ^t^h^o^ugh^a^dⁱ^s^c^rⁱ^mⁱ^na^tⁱ^o^n,ⁱ^s
^{214 U}^.^S^.⁹¹^of^buⁱ^l^dⁱⁿ^g^sⁱⁿ^areaⁿ^o^t^s^o^uⁿ^r^eas^on^abl^e^as^t^o^depri^v^{e ow}ⁿ^e^{r of}^propert^y^ofⁱ^t^s^profⁱ^t^a^bl^e
⁽¹⁹⁰⁹⁾^c^o^nt^aⁱⁿⁱⁿ^g^p^l^aⁱ^ntⁱ^{ff’s l}^a^nd^t^o^u^s^e^wⁱ^t^h^o^u^{t j}^u^stif^icatioⁿ^.^T^h^{e d}ⁱ^scrⁱ^mⁱⁿ^a^tioⁿ^w^a^{s j}^u^stif^ied^b^y^th^e
^low^e^{r h}^e^ig^h^t^th^an^els^e^w^h^ere^polⁱ^{ce pow}^er.
^Ju^rag^u^a^Iroⁿ^C^o^.^W^a^r^tim^{e d}^e^str^u^ctioⁿ^o^f^U.S.^{No tak}ⁱⁿ^g^.^A^m^erican^com^p^an^y^doin^g^bu^sⁱ^ne^s^sⁱⁿ^en^em^y^territory^is
^v^.^Un^{ited States}^,^com^p^an^y^’^s^propert^yⁱⁿ^deem^{ed en}^em^y^of^th^{e U.S.}^w^ith^res^p^{ect to}^{its p}^r^o^p^e^r^t^y^lo^catedⁱⁿ^th^at
^{212 U}^.^S^.²⁹⁷^en^em^y^t^e^rri^t^o^ry^{, on}^o^r^{der of}^ter^r^ito^r^y^.^No^co^m^p^en^satioⁿ^{is o}^w^ed^w^h^en^su^ch^p^r^o^p^e^r^t^y^is^d^e^str^o^y^e^d
⁽¹⁹⁰⁹⁾^{U.S. m}^ilitar^y^o^f^fⁱ^cer^{, to}^thr^o^{ugh m}^ilita^r^y^a^c^tio^{n j}^u^stifie^d^und^e^r^la^w^s^o^f^w^a^r^.

^p^r^ev^en^{t sp}^r^e^a^d^o^f^y^e^llo^w
^fe^ve^r

^C^a^s^e^A^c^ti^on^attack^ed^Hol^dⁱⁿ^g/^rati^on^al^e
^Sa^ue^r^v.^Ci^t^y^o^f^Co^nst^r^uc^tⁱ^o^{n o}^f^e^l^e^v^a^t^e^d^No^takⁱⁿ^g^.^Uⁿ^d^e^r^New^Yo^r^k^law^,^p^u^b^lic-^h^ig^h^w^ay^ab^u^tter^h^a^s
^New^Yo^rk^{, 2}⁰⁶^p^u^b^{lic v}ⁱ^ad^u^c^{t in}^city^str^eet,^eas^em^en^ts^of^acces^s^,^lig^h^t^{, an}^{d air}^a^g^aⁱ^ns^{t erection}^of^elev^ated
^U^.^S^.^{536 (1907)}^im^p^a^irin^g^acces^s^,^lig^h^t^{, an}^d^roadw^a^y^by^priv^{ate corporation}^,^bu^tⁿ^o^{t ag}^ain^s^{t er}^ectioⁿ^o^f^sam^e^f^o^r
^aⁱ^{r reach}ⁱⁿ^g^plain^tⁱ^ff’s^pu^blⁱ^c^u^s^e.
^propert^y
^M^aⁿⁱ^ga^ul^t^v.^Co^nst^r^uc^tⁱ^oⁿ^o^f^st^a^t^e^-^N^o^t^a^kⁱⁿ^g^.^F^l^oodiⁿ^g^ef^f^ect^s^t^a^kⁱⁿ^g^onl^y^w^h^e^r^e^t^h^{ere i}^s^m^a^t^e^ri^al
^S^p^riⁿ^g^s^{, 199 U}^.^S^.^au^th^o^r^ized^d^a^m^,^co^m^p^ellin^gⁱ^m^pai^r^m^eⁿ^t^of^f^l^ooded^l^aⁿ^d^’^s^v^a^l^u^e^—ⁿ^o^t^,^as^h^e^{re, w}^h^{ere pl}^aiⁿ^tⁱ^f^fⁱ^s
^{473 (1905)}^p^l^ain^tif^f^to^r^a^{ise h}ⁱ^{s d}ⁱ^k^e^{s an}^d^m^e^r^e^ly^p^u^{t to}^so^m^e^ex^tr^{a ex}^p^eⁿ^s^{e in}^r^a^isin^g^dⁱ^k^e^s⁽^aⁿ^d^ev^en^th^o^u^g^h
^im^pairin^g^acces^s^{to h}ⁱ^s^lan^d^s^d^a^m^’^s^s^o^{le pu}^rpos^{e is}^{to en}^h^aⁿ^{ce v}^a^lu^{e of}^dowⁿ^s^tream^low^l^an^ds^f^o^r
^ag^ricu^ltu^{re). No com}^p^ens^a^tⁱ^oⁿ^f^o^{r im}^{paired acces}^s^eith^{er, s}ⁱⁿ^c^e
^w^ithⁱⁿ^s^t^ate’^s^{police pow}^er.
^Ca^li^f^o^rⁿⁱ^a^O^r^diⁿ^aⁿ^{ce requi}^rⁱ^ng^t^h^at^N^o^t^a^ki^ng.^I^m^p^o^sⁱ^{ng e}^x^p^e^nse^oⁿ^w^a^st^e^ge^ne^r^a^t^o^r⁽^a^ssumⁱ^ng
^Re^d^u^c^tⁱ^o^{n C}^o^.^v.^w^a^{ste g}^eⁿ^e^r^a^ted^w^ithⁱⁿ^city^tr^aⁿ^sp^o^r^te^r^p^a^sse^{s o}ⁿ^dⁱ^sp^o^s^a^l^fe^e^s⁾^w^a^s^no^t^ta^king,^sinc^e^{it ha}^{s a}^l^w^a^y^s
^San^itar^y^be^dⁱ^s^pos^{ed of}^at^desⁱ^gⁿ^a^t^e^d^been^g^eⁿ^e^rat^o^r’^s^du^t^y^t^o^ha^ve^ga^rbag^{e rem}^o^v^e^{d f}^r^om^hⁱ^s^premⁱ^s^es^.
^Red^u^ctioⁿ^W^o^r^k^s,^{site, at tr}^an^sp^o^r^ter^’^{s ex}^p^eⁿ^s^e^N^o^{r di}^{d des}^t^ru^ctⁱ^oⁿ^of^w^a^s^t^{e am}^ouⁿ^t^t^o^t^a^kⁱⁿ^g^,^e^v^eⁿⁱ^f^som^e^ofⁱ^t^s
^{199 U}^.^S^.³⁰⁶^coⁿ^s^titu^en^{ts h}^a^d^v^a^lu^e.
⁽¹⁹⁰⁵⁾
^Bedf^{ord v}^.^Uⁿⁱ^t^e^d^G^o^ve^rⁿ^m^e^nt^rev^e^t^m^ent^s^No^takⁱⁿ^g^.^Dam^a^g^e^to^lan^d^{, if}^cau^sed^b^y^r^e^v^e^tm^en^{t at all, w}^a^{s b}^u^{t an}
^S^t^at^e^s^{, 192 U}^.^S^.^a^l^o^{ng r}ⁱ^ve^r^t^o^ha^l^t^wⁱ^d^eⁿⁱ^ng,ⁱⁿ^cⁱ^d^e^nt^a^l^c^o^nse^q^ue^nc^e^;^dⁱ^stⁱ^ngui^she^d^fr^o^mⁱⁿ^st^aⁿ^c^e^w^h^e^r^e
^{217 (1904)}^c^a^u^si^{ng r}ⁱ^ve^r^t^o^fl^o^w^f^a^st^e^r^g^o^v^e^rn^m^eⁿ^t^damⁱⁿ^ri^v^e^{r cau}^s^e^s^f^l^oodiⁿ^g^of^pri^v^at^{e l}^aⁿ^d^di^rect^l^y^.
^an^{d erode/}^f^l^{ood dow}ⁿ^s^t^r^eam
^propert^y
^Un^{ited States}^v^.^F^l^oodiⁿ^g^f^r^om^g^o^v^e^rn^m^eⁿ^t^T^a^kⁱ^ng^o^c^c^u^r^r^{ed. Wh}^{ere g}^o^v^e^rn^m^eⁿ^t^dam^f^l^oods^l^aⁿ^d^s^o^as^t^o
^L^yⁿ^a^h^,^{188 U}^.^S^.^d^a^m^,^co^m^p^letely^d^e^str^o^yⁱⁿ^g^su^b^s^tan^tially^d^e^str^o^y^{its v}^a^lu^{e, th}^er^{e is a tak}ⁱⁿ^g^.
^{445 (1903)}^l^a^nd^{’s va}^l^u^e
^Me^y^e^{r v}^.^City^-^a^u^t^h^o^rⁱ^zed^r^a^ilr^o^a^d^N^o^t^a^ki^ng.^O^b^st^r^u^c^tⁱ^oⁿ^w^a^s^no^t^oⁿ^p^l^aⁱ^ntⁱ^{ff’s l}^a^nd^.^H^e^nc^e^,ⁱ^m^p^a^c^t^oⁿ
^Ric^h^m^o^nd^,¹⁷²^o^b^s^tr^u^c^ti^oⁿ^t^o^str^eet,^p^l^ain^tif^f^am^o^uⁿ^t^ed^oⁿ^ly^to^coⁿ^s^eq^u^eⁿ^{tial d}^a^m^a^g^e^{s, w}^h^ich^ar^e
^U^.^S^.^{82 (1898)}^r^e^d^u^cⁱ^{ng t}^r^a^ffi^c^a^t^p^l^aⁱ^ntⁱ^ff’s^no^nc^o^m^p^e^nsa^b^l^e^.
^propertⁱ^e^sⁿ^earby
^Gⁱ^bs^on^v^.^Uⁿⁱ^t^e^d^Co^nst^r^uc^tⁱ^o^{n o}^f^go^ve^rⁿ^m^e^nt^N^o^t^a^kⁱⁿ^g^.^N^o^appropri^a^tⁱ^oⁿ^{or di}^rectⁱ^nva^sⁱ^on^occu^{rred, on}^l^y
^States^{, 16}^{6 U.S.}^dⁱ^ke^ne^a^r^p^l^aⁱ^ntⁱ^{ff’s l}^a^nd^,ⁱⁿ^ciden^t^{al in}^j^u^ries^f^r^om^{a law}^f^u^l^ex^ercis^e^of^f^e^{deral n}^a^vⁱ^g^a^tion
^{269 (1897)}^prev^en^tin^gⁱⁿ^g^r^es^s^an^{d eg}^res^s^se^r^vⁱ^t^u^d^e^.^N^o^w^a^t^e^r^w^a^{s t}^h^r^o^wⁿ^oⁿ^t^o^p^l^aⁱ^ntⁱ^{ff’s l}^a^nd^;^dⁱ^ke^dⁱ^d^no^t
^o^f^v^e^{ssels to}^co^m^m^e^r^c^ial^p^h^y^s^ically^to^u^c^h^th^{e lan}^d^o^r^cau^{se d}^e^p^o^s^{its th}^er^eoⁿ^.
^w^h^a^r^{f o}ⁿ^p^l^aⁱ^ntⁱ^{ff’s l}^a^nd
^M^ugl^e^r^v.^K^a^nsa^s^,^B^aⁿⁱⁿ^s^t^{ate con}^s^ti^t^u^tion^on^No^takⁱⁿ^g^.^A^p^r^o^h^ib^itioⁿ^sim^p^ly^u^p^oⁿ^th^{e u}^s^{e o}^f^p^r^o^p^e^r^t^y^f^o^r
^{123 U}^.^S^.⁶²³^m^a^nufa^c^t^ur^e^o^r^sa^l^e^o^f^lⁱ^q^uo^r^,^pu^rpos^es^{declared by}^v^a^lid^legⁱ^s^l^a^tⁱ^oⁿ^t^o^b^e^no^xi^o^u^{s c}^a^nno^t^b^e^d^e^e^m^e^d
⁽¹⁸⁸⁷⁾^g^r^eatly^redu^cin^g^brew^ery^’^s^a^t^a^ki^ng.
^va^l^u^e
^Un^{ited States}^v^.^G^o^ve^rⁿ^m^e^nt^{’s o}^ffse^t^o^fⁱ^t^s^Re^l^a^t^e^d^dⁱ^sc^ussi^oⁿ^a^sse^r^t^{s t}^h^a^t^go^ve^rⁿ^m^e^nt^c^a^nno^t^b^e^c^h^a^r^ge^d^fo^r
^P^acifⁱ^{c R}^d^{., 120}^co^{sts in}^r^e^b^u^ildⁱⁿ^g^b^r^id^g^e^sⁱⁿ^j^u^r^y^to^p^rⁱ^v^{ate p}^r^o^p^e^r^t^y^cau^sed^b^y^w^a^r^tim^{e o}^p^e^r^a^tioⁿ^sⁱⁿ^th^{e f}ⁱ^eld^,
^U^.^S^.^{227 (1887)}^des^t^roy^e^{d i}ⁿ^Cⁱ^vⁱ^l^War,^{or by}^m^e^a^s^ur^e^sⁿ^eces^s^a^ry^f^o^{r arm}^y^’^s^s^a^f^e^t^y^{. Bu}^t^w^h^en^propert^y^of
^ag^ain^s^{t railroad’}^s^claim^f^o^r^lo^y^a^{l citiz}^eⁿ^sⁱ^s^tak^eⁿ^f^o^r^ar^m^y^’^s^u^s^{e, it h}^a^{s b}^een^p^r^{actice to}
^s^e^rv^ices^c^o^m^p^eⁿ^sa^t^e^,^t^h^o^{ugh “}ⁱ^t^m^a^y^no^t^b^e^wⁱ^t^hⁱⁿ^t^h^e^t^e^r^m^{s o}^f^t^h^e
^coⁿ^s^titu^tioⁿ^a^{l clau}^se.”
^Un^{ited States}^v^.^B^u^ildⁱⁿ^g^o^f^d^a^m^,^w^h^ich^T^a^kⁱⁿ^g^occu^{rred. W}^h^{ere Un}^ited^Stat^es^by^its^ag^en^ts^proceeds^uⁿ^d^er
^Gr^ea^{t Falls Mf}^g^.^o^c^c^u^pⁱ^e^d^p^l^aⁱ^ntⁱ^{ff’s l}^a^nd^aⁿ^d^act^of^C^oⁿ^g^r^es^s^t^o^occu^py^propert^y^f^o^r^pu^blⁱ^c^u^s^{e, i}^t^m^u^s^t^com^p^en^s^a^t^e^.

^C^o^{., 112 U}^.^S^.⁶⁴⁵^t^o^o^k^hi^{s w}^a^t^e^r^rⁱ^ght^s
⁽¹⁸⁸⁴⁾

^C^a^s^e^A^c^ti^on^attack^ed^Hol^dⁱⁿ^g/^rati^on^al^e
^T^r^aⁿ^sp^o^r^tatioⁿ^C^o^.^Co^nst^r^uc^tⁱ^oⁿ^o^f^t^unne^l^und^e^r^N^o^t^a^kⁱⁿ^g^.^A^c^t^s^don^{e i}ⁿ^{proper ex}^erci^s^e^of^g^o^v^e^rn^m^eⁿ^t^pow^ers^,^an^d
^v^.^C^h^icag^o^,⁹⁹^rⁱ^v^e^r^,^tem^p^o^r^ar^ily^lim^itin^gⁿ^o^{t directly}^en^croachⁱⁿ^g^on^priv^{ate property}^,^{are n}^o^{t a tak}ⁱⁿ^g^.
^U^.^S^.^{635 (1878)}^acces^s^{to w}^h^arf
^P^u^m^p^elly^v^.^Green^D^a^m^t^h^a^t^f^l^{ooded pl}^aiⁿ^tⁱ^ff’s^T^a^kⁱⁿ^g^o^ccu^r^r^e^d^.^I^t^isⁿ^o^t^r^e^q^u^ir^ed^th^{at p}^r^o^p^e^r^t^y^b^e^f^o^r^m^ally^tak^eⁿⁱⁿ
^Bay^C^o^{., 80 U.S.}^l^a^nd^c^o^ntⁱ^nuo^usl^y^o^r^d^e^r^to^im^p^licate^T^a^kⁱⁿ^g^s^Clau^{se. Ser}ⁱ^o^u^{s in}^ter^f^er^en^{ce w}^ith^th^e
^{(13 Wal}^l^.^{) 1}⁶⁶^com^m^oⁿ^an^{d n}^eces^s^a^ry^u^s^{e of}^propert^y^,^a^s^by^con^tⁱⁿ^u^o^u^s^f^l^oodiⁿ^g^,
⁽¹⁸⁷¹⁾^ef^f^{ects a co}ⁿ^s^titu^tioⁿ^a^{l tak}ⁱⁿ^g^.
^Le^{gal T}^eⁿ^d^er^Fe^d^e^r^a^l^st^a^t^ut^e^s^m^a^ki^ng^U^.^S.^N^o^t^a^kⁱⁿ^g^.^T^a^kⁱⁿ^g^s^C^l^au^s^e^“^h^as^al^w^a^y^s^been^uⁿ^d^ers^t^{ood as}^ref^e^rriⁿ^g
^Ca^se^s⁽^K^no^{x v.}^cu^rren^cy^leg^a^{l ten}^d^{er f}^o^r^oⁿ^ly^to^a^dⁱ^r^ect^ap^p^r^o^p^r^iatioⁿ^”^;^{it h}^a^{s n}^o^b^earⁱⁿ^g^oⁿ^law^s^su^ch^{as th}^is
^L^{ee), 79 U.S.}⁽¹²^pay^m^eⁿ^t^of^al^l^debt^s^,^ev^en^oⁿ^{e th}^{at o}ⁿ^lyⁱⁿ^dⁱ^r^ectly^cau^{se lo}^{ss. Ov}^er^r^u^les^H^e^pbur^{n v. G}^rⁱ^s^w^o^l^d^,
^Wal^l^.^{) 457 (1870)}^th^o^s^{e en}^ter^e^dⁱⁿ^to^b^e^f^o^r^e^{75 U}^.^S^.^{(8 Wal}^l^.⁾^{603 (1870) (f}ⁱⁿ^diⁿ^g^l^e^g^a^l^t^eⁿ^d^{er act}^s^vⁱ^ol^atⁱ^v^{e of}
^en^actm^eⁿ^t^d^u^{e p}^r^o^{cess, b}^u^{t b}^r^ief^l^y^r^a^isin^g^takⁱⁿ^g^issu^e)^.