CLEARCUTTING IN THE NATIONAL FORESTS: BACKGROUND AND OVERVIEW

CRS Report for Congress
Clearcutting in the National Forests:
Background and Overview
November 6, 1998
Ross W. Gorte
Natural Resources Economist and Policy Specialist
Environment and Natural Resources Policy Division

Congressional Research Service ˜ The Library of Congress

A^BSTRACT
Clearcutting is a controversial method of harvesting and regenerating stands of trees in which
all trees are cleared from a site and a new even-aged stand is grown. It is a proven, efficient
method of harvesting trees and establishing new stands, but is criticized for degrading soil and
water quality, wildlife habitat, and aesthetics. Clearcutting is still the primary timber
management method used in the national forests, although its use has declined over the past
decade. Legislation to ban clear-cutting on federal lands has been introduced in the past few
Congresses. This report provides background and an overview on clearcutting use and
effects; it will probably not be updated.

Clearcutting in the National Forests:
Background and Overview
Summary
Clearcutting is a method of harvesting and regenerating trees in which all trees
are cleared from a site and a new, even-aged stand of trees is grown. Clearcutting is
the primary method of timber production and management in the national forests.
However, this method of harvesting trees has been controversial since at least the
1960s. Many environmental and citizen groups object to clearcutting in the national
forests, citing soil and water degradation, unsightly landscapes, and other damages.
The wood products industry argues that clearcutting is an efficient and successful
silvicultural system.
Between 1984 and 1997, clearcutting accounted for 59% of the area harvested
for regeneration in the national forests. (This excludes salvage, thinning, and other
harvesting not intended to establish new stands.) Other “even-aged” cutting systems
(which result in areas that appear similar to clearcut areas) accounted for another 28%
of the area harvested. Because of the continuing public outcry over clearcutting, the
Chief of the Forest Service announced on June 4, 1992, that the Forest Service would
reduce clearcutting by 70% from 1988 levels, and that this would reduce short-term
harvest volumes by about 10%. Data show that half of the proposed reduction in
acres clearcut had already been accomplished by 1991, but the total harvest volume
declined proportionally (because of the economic recession, litigation to protect
spotted owls, and a variety of other factors). Acres clearcut annually over the past
5 years (FY1993-FY1997) were 71% less than the FY1988 level, fulfilling the
promised reduction. However, average annual harvests were 66% below the FY1988
level, much more than the projected 10% decline.
The choice of clearcutting or other silvicultural systems depends on a number of
factors. Clearcutting is efficient, with lower costs for timber harvesting than other
silvicultural systems, and has proven successful for regenerating stands of certain tree
species. On the other hand, clearcutting and other even-aged systems often have
greater impacts on soil, water, and aesthetics, and result in different plant and animal
communities than do selection harvesting systems. Foresters argue that clearcutting
is a legitimate forest silvicultural system under certain circumstances, and should be
used when and where appropriate for particular species and specific site conditions,
and on public lands when it also conforms with the public’s values and goals for those
lands.
Interest in clearcutting has increased in the past few Congresses. Several bills
have been introduced in the 105 and preceding Congresses to ban clearcutting (or^th
all even-aged management systems) in the national forests. If Congress were to enact
specific management restrictions, such as a ban on clearcutting in federal forests, the
professional flexibility and discretion of federal employees managing the lands
entrusted to their stewardship would be reduced substantially. If, however, public
tolerance continues to be eroded by the use of clearcutting or other even-aged silvi-
cultural systems where they are unacceptable to the public and by recurring environ-
mental damage from clearcutting, pressure for congressional intervention will likely
increase. This report will not be updated.

Contents
The Clearcutting Controversy......................................2
Definition .................................................. 2
Historical Perspective........................................4
National Forest Timber Harvests................................5
Considerations in Choosing Clearcutting..............................8
Natural Factors.............................................8
Existing Stand Conditions.................................8
Desired Future Conditions.................................8
Impacts on Soil and Water................................10
Implications for Non-Timber Values.........................12
Landowner Objectives.......................................13
Financial Considerations..................................13
Other Landowner Objectives..............................14
Selecting Clearcutting as a Silvicultural System........................15
Bibliography .................................................. 18
Appendix A:
Definitions of Silvicultural Systems.............................19
The Clearcutting System.....................................19
The Seed-Tree System.......................................19
The Shelterwood System.....................................19
The Selection System........................................20
Appendix B:
National Forest Management Act of 1976........................21
Appendix C:
Acres Harvested in the National Forest System
by Cutting Method, and Their Relative Importance.................22

Clearcutting in the National Forests:
Background and Overview
Clearcutting is a method of harvesting and regenerating timber in which all trees
are cleared from a site and a new “even-aged” stand of trees (where the trees are
nearly all the same age) is grown. Clearcutting, the primary method of cutting and
growing trees in the national forests, has been controversial since at least the 1960s.
Many environmental and citizen groups object to clearcutting in the national forests,
citing soil and water degradation, unsightly landscapes, over-harvesting, loss of plant
and animal diversity, and other damages and abuses. The timber industry generally
endorses clearcutting because it is economically efficient and has been successful for
regenerating forests of certain species. Forestry professionals argue that clearcutting
is a legitimate silvicultural (vegetation management) system for certain species and
particular site conditions, and is appropriate on federal lands when it conforms with
the public’s values and goals for those lands.
This report provides background on the clearcutting controversy, defines and
describes clearcutting, and analyzes a U.S. Forest Service announcement to reduce
clearcutting as the standard timber harvesting practice in the national forests. This
report also discusses the considerations in and consequences of choosing to use
clearcutting. This report focuses on clearcutting; other silvicultural methods are
defined, but are not discussed in detail, even though the results of other even-aged
silvicultural methods may appear quite similar to clearcutting.
General information about timber harvesting in this report is applicable to forest
management practices on both public and private lands. Data on area clearcut and
descriptions of federal policies on clearcutting, however, apply only to those lands
managed by the Forest Service in the U.S. Department of Agriculture; the national
forests administered by the Forest Service constitute the largest ownership of forest
land in the United States, including about 90% of all federal timberlands. Data on
acres clearcut on private and other government lands have not been compiled, and
thus cannot be compared with the Forest Service data. In addition, the regulation of
private forest management has traditionally been delegated to the states. Many states
have forest practice acts that provide guidelines and requirements for private forest
management, but none have banned clearcutting (although state ballot initiatives to
prohibit clearcutting have been debated in at least two states). Information on state
forest practice regulation is beyond the scope of this report.¹

For more information, see: Russell K. Henly and Paul V. Ellefson. State Forest Practice¹
Regulation in the U.S.: Administration, Cost, and Accomplishment. Sta. Bull. AD-SB3011.
St. Paul, MN: Univ. of Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station, 1986.

The Clearcutting Controversy
Clearcutting, particularly on federal lands, is controversial. Environmentalists
and many other citizens often describe it as harmful and abusive. Many groups
advocate a complete ban on clearcutting in federal forests, sometimes supporting the
use of “selection” harvesting (see definitions below) as a substitute that they consider
less abusive to the land and resources. (Other groups would ban all commercial
timber harvesting in federal forests, but an analysis of this “zero-cut” option is beyond
the scope of this report.) Professional foresters, represented by the Society of
American Foresters, have stated that clearcutting:
... is an appropriate silvicultural method for regenerating [tree] species that are
shade-intolerant and the optimum method to achieve other management objectives²
... [although] it can have undesirable effects if not used properly.
The wood products industry defends clearcutting as an efficient and successful
system for harvesting and regenerating certain commercially-valuable tree species, and
has expressed concerns that restricting or eliminating the use of clearcutting would
unnecessarily restrict timber supplies and raise the costs of harvesting, and would
consequently increase timber and wood product prices.
Definition
Silviculture is defined as:
the process whereby forests are tended, harvested, and replaced, resulting in a
forest of distinctive form. Systems are classified according to the method of
carrying out the fellings that remove the mature crop with a view to regeneration³
and ... according to the type of forest thereby produced.
Four primary silvicultural systems have traditionally been used to harvest timber
and regenerate forests (i.e., for regeneration harvesting) in the United States: clear-
cutting, seed-tree, shelterwood, and selection harvesting. The first three — clear-
cutting, seed-tree, and shelterwood systems — are called “even-aged” management
systems, because the resulting stands of trees are essentially the same age and often
(though not necessarily) about the same size. (Because the results are similar, other
even-aged systems are often decried as another form of “clearcutting.”) The fourth
system — selection harvesting — is an “uneven-aged” system, because the resulting
stands contain intermingled trees of many ages and a variety of sizes.
In clearcutting, all trees are cleared from a site and a new, even-aged stand of
trees is grown naturally (from seeds from the surrounding trees) or artificially (from

Society of American Foresters. Clearcutting. from:²
http://www.safnet.org/news/clearcut.html (7/13/98, 1:40 PM)
U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Forest Service. Silvicultural Systems for the Major Forest Types³
of the United States. Agriculture Handbook No. 445. Washington, DC: U.S. Govt. Print.
Off., Dec. 1983. p.185. (Hereafter referred to as USDA Forest Service, Silvicultural
Systems.)

sown seeds or planted seedlings). With the seed-tree system, the area is nearly⁴
cleared, but several seed-producing trees are left to regenerate the area naturally and
the seed trees are removed after the seedling stand is established (about 5 years after
the initial harvest). In the shelterwood system, trees are removed in two or more
cuts; some trees are left for several years to provide seeds and to protect the seedlings
before being removed. The selection system removes trees, either singly or in small
groups, over time; regeneration of new trees is continuous. (These four silvicultural
systems for regeneration harvesting are defined further in appendix A.)
Two additional silvicultural techniques are also commonly used. Intermediate
harvesting, also called thinning, includes an array of harvests between establishing
and regeneration harvesting the stand, often to improve the growth or value of the
remaining trees. Sanitation or salvage cutting is used to remove trees that are dead,
damaged, or threatened by insects or disease, typically to control the spread of the
pest or pathogen and to use the wood before it deteriorates. These latter types of⁵
harvests could clear all or most of a site, but would not be considered clearcutting or
other even-aged regeneration harvesting because the principal purpose is other than
establishing a new stand of trees.
Concerns about the shortcomings of clearcutting and other traditional silvi-
cultural methods have led researchers to various alternative approaches. Initially,
researchers developed “new forestry” — “a kinder, gentler forestry” than traditional
silviculture. Research has continued to develop and assess alternative approaches:
Silviculturists are challenged as never before by a multiplicity of man-
agement objectives and by recent scientific insights into forest ecosystems and
landscapes.... Basic premises underlying traditional practices have been rendered
obsolete.... The simplistic notion that four regeneration harvest practices, designed
with the knowledge and objectives of the 19th century, can meet the objectives of
the 21st century must be given up....
In the 21st century, silvicultural prescriptions must be viewed as the working
hypotheses that they are rather than as treatments with determinate and predictable
ends. Adoption of the principles of adaptive management are essential. Hopefully,
silviculturists will be leaders in creating the infinite array of silvicultural
prescriptions that will be needed to achieve the complex multiple objectives, to
abandon the straightjacket of the traditional regeneration harvest systems, and to
embrace the view that silviculture is the art and science of manipulating forest⁶

stands, regardless of objectives.
Timber harvesting where all trees are removed, but where establishing a new stand is not the⁴
principal purpose, such as clearing for agricultural use or to protect against wildfires, is not
technically clearcutting, although the term is often used for such timber clearing.
For additional information on salvage timber harvesting, see CRS Report 95-364 ENR,⁵
Salvage Timber Sales and Forest Health.
“Section II. Silvicultural Systems and Management Concerns.” Creating a Forestry for the⁶

21st Century: The Science of Ecosystem Management. [Kathryn A. Kohm and Jerry F.

Franklin, eds.] Washington, DC: Island Press, 1997. pp. 107-109.

Historical Perspective
The Multiple-Use Sustained-Yield Act of 1960 (P.L. 86-517) directs national
forest management for “outdoor recreation, range, timber, watershed, and wildlife and
fish purposes ... with consideration being given to the relative values of the various
resources ....” The National Forest Management Act of 1976 (NFMA; P.L. 94-588)
requires land and resource management plans that integrate scientific information to
achieve these purposes while considering the economic and environmental effects of
various management options and with public involvement. However, some critics
argue that these mandates have not been followed, because the Forest Service has
given priority to timber production over the other uses and values of the forests.⁷
Clearcutting has been controversial for at least 40 years, since it became the
dominant method of harvesting and regenerating timber in the national forests.⁸
Before 1970, national forest timber was mostly harvested and regenerated by the
selection system. However, clearcutting and other even-aged systems are now the
primary silvicultural methods used in the national forests.
The debate over the benefits and liabilities of clearcutting in the late 1960s was
similar to the debate today. A Senate Committee Report, Clearcutting on Federal
Timberlands, summarizes the early history of the debate and the Senate Committee
on Interior and Insular Affairs views on the judicious use of clearcutting in the
“Church Clearcutting Guidelines,” named for Senator Frank Church of Idaho, Chair
of the Subcommittee on Public Lands. Many of the provisions from the Church
Clearcutting Guidelines were incorporated into §§ 6(g)(3)(D), (E), and (F) of NFMA.
(These sections of NFMA are reproduced in appendix B.)
Enactment of NFMA did not end the clearcutting controversy. At various times
since, the Forest Service has fine-tuned its clearcutting policy, but clearcutting is still
widely used for timber harvesting on national forest lands, and many conservation and
citizen groups continue to object to its use. Efforts to reserve old growth forests as
habitat for the threatened northern spotted owl and other species have intensified the
controversy, because clearcutting and other even-aged silvicultural techniques
fragment wildlife habitat and because the area of old growth forest continues to
decline.

See, for example: Randal O'Toole. Reforming the Forest Service. Washington, DC: Island⁷
Press, 1988.
For more information on the history of clearcutting and other timber harvesting and⁸
regeneration methods in this country, see: A.P. Mustian. “The History and Philosophy of
Silviculture and Management Systems in Use Today.” Uneven-Aged Silviculture and
Management in the United States. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service, Feb. 1978. pp.

1-17.

In 1992, in response to these concerns and as a result of new information, the
Chief of the Forest Service announced a new policy of “ecosystem management” for
the National Forest System. The policy paper directing this new approach states:⁹
This policy would reduce clearcutting where it has been used as a standard timber
harvest practice on the National Forests. Clearcutting would be limited to areas
where it is essential to meet forest plan objectives and involve one or more of the
following circumstances:
1. To establish, enhance, or maintain habitat for threatened, endangered, or
sensitive species.
2. To enhance wildlife habitat or water yield values, or to provide for
recreation, scenic vistas, utility lines, road corridors, facility sites, reservoirs, or
similar development.

3. To rehabilitate lands adversely impacted by events such as fires, wind-

storms, or insect or disease infestations.
4. To preclude or minimize the occurrence of potentially adverse impacts or
insect or disease infestations, windthrow, logging damage, or other factors
affecting forest health.
5. To provide for the establishment and growth of desired trees or other
vegetative species that are shade intolerant.
6. To rehabilitate poorly stocked stands due to past management practices
or natural events.

7. To meet research needs.

This clearcutting policy combined with the new USDA-Forest Service ecosystem
management can reduce clearcutting by as much as 70 percent from FY 1988
levels. The reduction on timber volume over the short-run is likely to be about 10
percent. There would be little reduction in timber volume over the long-term.
Conservation groups and others questioned whether this announcement would
actually reduce clearcutting and increase the use of other silvicultural systems, be-
cause the “new” clearcutting guidelines were similar to those mandated in NFMA in
1976, which they assert were never really implemented. Industry argued that the
policy would reduce the amount of timber from national forests by more than the
estimated 10% and would increase the cost of timber harvesting.
National Forest Timber Harvests
Nationally, clearcutting has accounted for less than half (47%) of the national
forest acres harvested in regeneration cutting over the past 5 years. (See table 1,
below, and appendix C.) The acreage and relative importance of clearcutting have
declined substantially. In 1988, more than 283,000 acres were clearcut, but fewer
than 46,000 acres were clearcut in 1997 — only 16% of the 1988 acreage. Similarly,
clearcutting was nearly 73% of total regeneration harvesting in 1987, but only 42%
in 1997. Thus, by area, clearcutting has declined by more than the 70% promised in

U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Forest Service, Washington Office. Subject: Ecosystem⁹
Management of the National Forests and Grasslands. Memorandum to Regional Foresters
and Station Directors. Washington, DC: June 4, 1992.

the 1992 policy statement. However, the total timber volume harvested has declined
by more than the projected 10% as a result of the policy change and other factors.
In 1988, 12.6 billion board feet (BBF) of timber was cut from the national forests;
the 1997 harvest was only 3.3 BBF, about a quarter (26%) of the 1988 harvest.
Table Acreage and Share of Timber Harvest in
the National Forest System by Cutting Method
1984-1988 1989-1992 1993-1997
acres share acres share acres share
Clearcutting 253,739 66.0% 208,895 56.9% 80,768 46.6%
Even-Aged/Final 100,544 26.2% 117,742 32.1% 39,759 23.0%
Selection 29,913 7.8% 40,363 11.0% 52,648 30.4%
Regeneration Sum384,19553.7%367,00044.6%173,17531.3%
Even-Aged/Prep. 65,427 9.2% 105,831 12.9% 57,169 10.3%
Intermediate 165,304 23.1% 173,184 21.1% 143,872 26.0%
Sanitation 98,457 13.8% 171,089 20.8% 170,994 30.9%
Special 1,711 0.2% 5,426 0.7% 8,077 1.5%
Total 715,093 822,529 553,286
Source: U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Forest Service. Annual Reforestation and Timber Stand
Improvement Accomplishment Report: Table 20 — Regeneration and Intermediate Harvest Acres.
Unpublished annual report. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service, Timber Management Staff.
The reported decline in acreage and importance of clearcutting could mask some
of the public concern over clearcutting. Many people consider the other even-aged
silvicultural methods to effectively result in clearcutting. The data in table 1 and
appendix C show that the acreage and importance of other even-aged regeneration
harvests have also declined. Final even-aged regeneration harvests peaked in 1989,¹⁰
at 148,000 acres, 34% of regeneration harvest acreage. In 1997, such harvests were
only 14,000 acres (9% of the 1988 acreage) and 13% of regeneration harvest acres.
In addition, sanitation harvesting sometimes removes all or most of the trees from a
site, and thus many would consider such harvests to be clearcuts. Sanitation harvest
levels have fluctuated substantially, from fewer than 70,000 acres (about 10% of total
harvest area) in 1987 to more than 240,000 acres (nearly 33% of total harvest area)
in 1993. No trend can be discerned from the data, although the relative importance

Regeneration harvests for seed-tree and shelterwood harvesting systems include only the¹⁰
final harvest of trees from the stand. The initial harvest — identified as even-aged/prep. in
the table and the appendix — is not counted as a regeneration harvest, since it is not the final
harvest of the site. Counting both the initial and final harvest acres would double-count the
regeneration harvest acres, since (over several years) the same acres would be cut twice.

of sanitation harvesting has risen substantially over the past decade as the area of
regeneration harvesting has declined.
These national data mask the substantial regional variation in using the various
silvicultural systems. Although the relative importance of clearcutting and of re-
generation harvesting generally have declined nationally, they have different levels of
importance in the various regions, and clearcutting has not declined in all regions, as
shown in the tables in appendix C. The information from those Forest Service data
is summarized here:
!Region 1 — north Idaho and Montana: regeneration harvesting has declined
less than nationally, and clearcutting has retained its relative importance (about

60% of regeneration harvesting).

!Region 2 — Colorado, South Dakota, and Wyoming: regeneration harvesting
has increased (except for 1997) while intermediate harvesting has declined.
Other even-aged harvesting is most important, although selection harvesting
has increased in importance in the past 5 years.
!Region 3 — Arizona and New Mexico: regeneration harvesting has declined
steeply. Clearcutting is uncommon (less than 3% of regeneration harvesting),
while selection harvesting has become significant since 1990.
!Region 4 — south Idaho, Nevada, Utah, and Wyoming: regeneration harvest-
ing has fluctuated widely, with lower relative importance in the past 5 years.
Sanitation harvesting has increased substantially, from fewer than 5,000 acres
annually (25% of total harvests) in the mid-1980s to nearly 40,000 acres
annually (74% of total harvests) in the mid-1990s.
!Region 5 — California: regeneration harvesting has declined substantially, but
the relative importance of clearcutting has declined less than nationally. Sani-
tation harvesting has always been significant, and has grown in importance.
!Region 6 — Oregon and Washington: regeneration harvesting and clearcutting
have declined in importance, in parallel with national trends. Sanitation har-
vesting has become much more important in the past 5 years
!Region 8 — the South (Virginia through Oklahoma and Texas): regeneration
harvesting has declined in parallel with national trends. In the mid 1980s,
clearcutting accounted for more than 90% of regeneration harvesting, but has
been only half of regeneration harvesting in the past 5 years.
!Region 9 — the Northeast and North Central (Maine to Maryland to Missouri
to Minnesota): regeneration harvesting has declined less than nationally.
Clearcutting has declined substantially, but still accounted for nearly 60% of
regeneration harvesting over the past 5 years.
!Region 10 — Alaska: regeneration harvest acreage has declined, but less than
nationally. Clearcutting accounts for more than 90% of all timber harvesting,
although sanitation harvesting has become significant in the past 2 years.

Considerations in Choosing Clearcutting
Forest management is both science and art. Although there are principles and
guidelines that can be followed in managing a forest, whether for timber production
or wilderness recreation, each site is a unique composition of many factors that must
be considered and which respond in many different ways to silvicultural systems. As
described by one well-known forest silviculturalist:
Logical programs for the long-term management of particular stands or kinds of
stands are not devised by making judicious selections from classifications and
schematic descriptions of silvicultural systems. This book, for example, and in
spite of certain superficial resemblances, is not a cookbook from which such
choices can be made and applied. A good silvicultural system is not chosen but¹¹
formulated as a solution to a specific set of circumstances.
The human demands placed on forests are so variable that it is fortunate that forest
vegetation usually is flexible and resilient. Because of this, silviculture can be
quite variable. Natural factors set limits on what is possible, but after these
natural limitations are taken into account, the next considerations are the
management objectives that society and ownership, public and private, have set for¹²
a given tract of forest land.
Natural Factors
Certain natural factors limit the feasible management possibilities for a tract of
land without impairing its long-term productivity. These factors include: existing
stand conditions; the nature of the desired future forest; impacts on soil and water;
and implications for non-timber values.
Existing Stand Conditions. The current stand of trees — the distribution of
sizes and species, the health and quality of the trees, and the species composition —
limit the feasible management options. For example, trees of poor health or low
quality would provide a substandard seed source for establishing a new stand, and
thus clearcutting might be the preferred silvicultural system since it is more efficient
for artificial regeneration (tree planting). Similarly, a stand of mixed species might be
an undesirable seed source, if the landowner objectives are to maximize timber
production. Thus, current stand conditions may limit the silvicultural options that are
feasible, since the current stand may be unable to provide the necessary protection or
seed supply.
Desired Future Conditions. Equally as important is the desired condition of
the future timber stand. Silvicultural techniques greatly affect the composition and
diversity of plant and animal species on a site and on neighboring sites. Clearcutting
and other even-aged harvesting methods are often described as attempts to mimic

David M. Smith. The Practice of Silviculture, 7 ed. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons,¹¹^th

1962. pp. 358-359. (Hereafter referred to as Smith, The Practice of Silviculture.)

David M. Smith. “The Forests of the United States.” Regional Silviculture of the United¹²^nd
States, 2 ed. [John W. Barrett, ed.] New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, 1980. p. 22.

natural disturbances, particularly natural patterns of damage by fires or by native
insects and diseases. Because fire sometimes threatens human life and property, rapid
fire suppression has been a priority for many decades. However, this has decreased
the natural role fire has historically played in opening up stands of trees, particularly
for species that do not tolerate shade and/or that depend on fire for propagation.
Some of the most in-depth research on the ecological succession of forests has
been done by the Hubbard Brook Ecosystem Study in the hardwood forests of the
White Mountains of New Hampshire. The objectives of that study include linking
basic research with forest management and studying the forest ecosystem through
various stages of development, such as before and after clearcutting. As with any
forestry research, results are site-specific. However, generalities based on research
results can often be extrapolated to other cases and sites. Regarding the acceptability
of the environmental consequences of clearcutting in a forest ecosystem, scientists
from Hubbard Brook have stated:¹³
Our studies suggest that many similarities exist between redevelopment occur-ring
in clearcut ecosystems and in openings in the forest created by naturally occurring
tree fall. This suggests to us that clearcutting has the potential to work with nature
rather than against it and that clearcutting may be considered as an ecologically
acceptable procedure in White Mountain northern hardwood forests. However, it
also is apparent that misuse of stem-only clearcutting can lead to necessary short-
and long-term degradation of the forest ecosystem. Therefore, it should be coupled
with carefully designed safeguards.
Some of these guidelines identified from the Hubbard Brook Ecosystem Study
include:¹⁴
!clearcutting should be limited to sites with strong recuperative ability;
!roads should consume an absolute minimum amount of area;
!proper ecological weight should be given to species that have little importance
as a source of wood products but play an important role by conserving
nutrients, minimizing erosion, and being a source of food for wildlife;
!cuts should be relatively small (several hectares) to insure the availability of
seed sources and to minimize losses via dissolved substances and eroded
material.
In addition to affecting future plant diversity, every silvicultural decision also has
consequences for wildlife.
Timber management is wildlife management. The degree to which it is good
wildlife management depends on how well the wildlife biologist can explain the

F. Herbert Bormann and Gene E. Likens. Pattern and Process in a Forested Eco-system.¹³
New York, NY: Springer-Verlag, 1979. p. 225.
Ibid., p. 226. These are just a few of the guidelines identified by the study. Also, according¹⁴
to these scientists, the Forest Service has already implemented most of their guidelines.

relationship of wildlife to habitat and how well the forester can manipulate habitat¹⁵
to achieve wildlife goals.
The principal difference between uneven-aged and even-aged silvicultural
systems, in terms of plant and animal diversity, is the long-lasting effect of the re-
generation harvest. These differences have been described by Thomas and Radtke:¹⁶
Uneven-aged management ... tends, over time, to reduce the horizontal diversity
of plants and animals in the forest. The resulting stands often have high structural
(vertical) diversity because of the intermingling of the different ages and sizes of
trees. But there is a gradual reduction of shade-intolerant trees and understory
plants.... Such forests lack the variety of distinct successional stages that ensure
diversity and a myriad of habitat niches.
Uneven-aged management, however, can be a useful wildlife management tech-
nique. It benefits wildlife and plant species adapted to more mature forest con-
ditions, and it can be used to preserve the integrity of delicate and dispropor-
tionately important wildlife habitats, such as riparian zones.
A forest under even-aged management usually has low vertical diversity because
of the comparative simplicity of the stand structure.... Even-aged systems ...
produce distinct successional stages and high degree of horizontal diversity be-
cause there are numerous stands of various age scattered through the forest ...
[that] provide a variety of habitats ... [including conditions] not available in the
more mature forest.
No single system of forest management can be a panacea for wildlife manage-
ment. The decision about which system to use must be based on specific
management goals. The forest structure must be considered, along with size and
shape of the stand, its juxtaposition to other stands, the road systems, and special
habitat needs. Flexibility in the use of silvicultural systems can be a key to
meeting a range of wildlife goals.
Impacts on Soil and Water. Timber harvesting can have substantial impacts
on soil and water. The quantity of water flowing from a forest is proportional to the¹⁷
extent of vegetative cover, especially tree cover; as more trees are removed from a
site, water yields increase. In addition, the seasonal distribution of streamflow is often

Jack Ward Thomas and Robert E. Radtke. “Effects of Timber Management Practices on¹⁵
Forest Wildlife Management.” The Scientific Basis for Silvicultural and Management
Decisions in the National Forest System. [Russell M. Burns, technical compiler.] USDA
Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rept. WO-55. Washington, DC: U.S. Govt. Print. Off., 1989. p.

108.

Ibid., pp. 112-114.¹⁶
Unless otherwise specified, the information in this section is drawn from: Wayne T. Swank,¹⁷
Leonard F. DeBano, and Devon Nelson. “Effects of Timber Management Practices on Soil
and Water.” The Scientific Basis for Silvicultural and Management Decisions in the
National Forest System. [Russell M. Burns, technical compiler.] USDA Forest Service Gen.
Tech. Rept. WO-55. Washington, DC: U.S. Govt. Print. Off., 1989. pp. 80-82. (Here-after
referred to as Swank, et al., “Effects of Timber Practices on Soil and Water.”)

altered for a few years following timber harvesting. Increased yields are often seen
as a benefit, if water quality is not degraded. However, since spring snow melt
typically occurs earlier in clearcut areas, the increased flow can also add to potential
spring flooding and can decrease summer streamflows.
Water quality characteristics most affected by timber harvesting are sediment
loads, dissolved nutrients, and water temperature. Undisturbed forests generally
result in low levels of dissolved or suspended matter (except during floods); sediment
loads and dissolved nutrients generally increase with the level of disturbance to the
forest. Timber harvesting adjacent to stream channels typically increases sediment
flows into streams and raises stream temperatures, because it removes the streamside
vegetation that buffers the stream. Buffer strips (typically 50-100 feet on either side
of stream) are often suggested to mitigate these effects.
Clearcutting and other cutting practices, however, are not the primary cause of
erosion or water quality deterioration resulting from timber harvesting operations.
Rather, the associated skidding (hauling logs to a loading site) and road construction
are typically the major sources of soil and water degradation:¹⁸
Felling trees alone seldom causes erosion although some soil compaction and
surface gouging may occur during this operation. In contrast, road building,
skidding and stacking logs, and some site preparation activities can produce major
soil surface disturbance that greatly increases the erosion on a site.
In fact, clearcutting may result in less road construction, and thus less water
quality degradation, than other silvicultural methods. Clearcutting typically requires
fewer roads than other silvicultural systems, because cable logging systems can be
used to transport the timber from the stump to the loading site. “With systems using
cable skidding, however, partial cutting [i.e., silvicultural systems other than clear-
cutting] is rarely practical, as residual trees are apt to be damaged or destroyed”
during harvesting. Clearcutting usually leads to less road maintenance, because¹⁹
activities occur in one operation; other even-aged systems typically require access to
the site two or three times, while the selection system essentially requires permanent
access to all timber stands. Of course, no timber harvesting or road construction
would yield the highest water quality.
Prescribed fires are often used on sites that have been clearcut, to remove the
combustible fuels from the area and to prepare the site for reforestation. The effects
of fire on soil and water depends primarily on the intensity of the fire. “Generally, a
low-intensity fire increases the availability of nutrients to plants ...[and] generally does
not increase soil erosion. Intense, hot fires may completely burn the forest floor,
expose mineral soil, and accelerate soil erosion in steep terrain.” However, pre-²⁰
scribed fires conducted under proper weather and fuel conditions can avoid most of
the problems arising from intense fires.

Ibid., p. 80.¹⁸
A.E. Wackerman, W.D. Hagenstein, and A.S. Michell. Harvesting Timber Crops, 2 ed.¹⁹^nd
New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1966. p. 41.
Swank, et al., “Effects of Timber Practices on Soil and Water,” p. 82.²⁰

Implications for Non-Timber Values. The primary non-timber use of forests
is for recreation, but surprisingly little research has documented the effects of the
various silvicultural systems on recreation patterns and levels. Research studies have
identified public preferences for various forest conditions; the least preferred con-²¹
ditions include:
Artificial intrusions, especially: clearcuts, slash, stumps, [and] other signs of
timber harvesting disturbances.
Plantations and “monocultures”.
Standing diseased, dead, or dying trees in large numbers.
Dense “eye-level” vegetation or undergrowth; i.e., a thicket with dense sapling
stands or dense forest understories over large areas.
In contrast, the most preferred conditions were natural-appearing landscapes,
with a diversity of vegetation, large-diameter trees, sparse undergrowth, and natural-
appearing openings.
Research has more typically focused on aesthetics, and the effects of silvicultural
activities on aesthetics. Visual management is often based on visual quality
objectives, ranging from no change to impacts not visible or subordinate to the
characteristic landscape to impacts that dominate but are modified to appear natural
from various distances. Uneven-aged timber management practices generally have
less noticeable effects on aesthetics than even-aged silvicultural systems, because the
impacts are typically smaller in scale and more random in pattern, thus leaving the
natural forest characteristics apparently intact. In contrast, even-aged silvicultural
systems have greater impact on visual quality, with clearcutting generally having
greater impacts than other even-aged cutting systems. Nonetheless, when even-aged
management is “carefully applied, it should be possible to meet [high visual quality
objectives] ... along less sensitive parts of view sheds.”²²
However, “There is no way to deny a fresh clearcut is ugly.... like a new haircut,
the clearcut is embarrassingly evident. For this reason, it has become a symbol of
man’s injury, real and fancied, to the natural world.” Forests are increasingly valued²³
for spiritual reasons. American society is becoming increasingly urbanized and
increasingly removed from the historical utilitarian values of forests and forest
products, and forests are increasingly romanticized, as increasingly rare vestiges of
our wilderness heritage, regardless of past human intrusions into (and impacts on)
those forests. Such values directly conflict with timber harvesting generally, and
particularly with silvicultural systems that result in more significant visual impacts,
such as clearcutting.

See: Wayne G. Tlusty and Warren R. Bacon. “Effects of Timber Management Practices²¹
on Recreation and Esthetics (Visual Resource).” The Scientific Basis for Silvicultural and
Management Decisions in the National Forest System. [Russell M. Burns, technical
compiler.] USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rept. WO-55. Washington, DC: U.S. Govt.
Print. Off., 1989. pp. 134-140.
Ibid., p. 140.²²
Eleanor C.J. Horowitz. Clearcutting: A View From the Top. Washington, DC: Acropolis²³
Books, Ltd., 1974. p. 30.

Landowner Objectives
Financial Considerations. Clearcutting is often considered desirable by land
owners, professional foresters, and the timber industry, because it is more efficient
than other methods, both in harvesting timber and in regenerating stands. Efficiency
is important, because “Harvesting timber crops is usually the most expensive opera-
tion conducted in the forest.” Efficiency is typically measured as expenditure per²⁴
unit of output (e.g., per million board feet of timber cut). This often excludes the
non-financial cost of environmental damages (discussed above), however, and thus
incompletely accounts for economic impacts. Nonetheless, cost efficiency — the
financial element — is one consideration in selecting a silvicultural system.
Clearcutting is more efficient than other silvicultural systems for harvesting trees,
because it yields a greater volume of wood from one site and in one operation, and
thus the average unit cost is lower than under other silvicultural systems. Selection
systems are particularly expensive, because the variety of tree species and sizes in
uneven-aged stands requires a greater variety of treatments:²⁵
One disadvantage that limits the use of the selection system is the complexity of
all operations conducted in the intermingled mixtures of different age.... The
difficulty and expense of harvesting operations is usually greater than in even-aged
stands.
As noted above, clearcutting can have additional advantages in areas with steep
terrain, because it typically requires fewer roads, and road construction and main-
tenance are expensive (as well as environmentally damaging) operations.
Clearcutting can also be more efficient for regenerating timber stands. Cleared
sites reduce the cost of site preparation, because there is no need to avoid damaging
residual trees. Furthermore, artificial regeneration (planting seedlings) is sometimes
preferable to natural regeneration:²⁶
The significant advantages [of planting] are: (a) close control over the arrange-
ment, composition, and genetic qualities of new stands; (b) shortening of period of
establishment; (c) avoidance of dangers to which seed and new seedlings are
exposed in the field; and, (d) freedom from restrictions on harvesting techniques.
Planting, if properly done, creates stands that can be treated more efficiently
and yield greater volumes and values than naturally regenerated stands.[emphasis
in original]
One provision of the National Forest Management Act (NFMA) makes rapid
reforestation particularly important for the national forests. Section 6(g)(3)(E) re-
quires regulations that “insure that timber will be harvested from National Forest
System lands only where ... (ii) there is assurance that such lands can be adequately

Smith, The Practice of Silviculture, p. 382.²⁴
Smith, The Practice of Silviculture, p. 500.²⁵
Smith, The Practice of Silviculture, p. 307.²⁶

restocked within five years after harvest.” Despite other provisions that may restrict
the use of clearcutting (see appendix B), this reforestation requirement may increase
the emphasis on and incidence of clearcutting, because clearcutting increases the
assurance of adequate reforestation within 5 years.
Other Landowner Objectives. Harvesting techniques selected for public and
private forests are linked to all the landowners’ goals for the lands being managed,
and those lands may have a variety of objectives. The objectives may depend in part
upon whether the land is publicly owned or is in private ownership — owned by an
individual (such as a farmer), or by a corporation. A wood products company may
have timber production as the primary objective for its forestlands, and thus financial
considerations may be paramount. A farmer may plant trees as a windbreak or to
protect soil from erosion, and then decide to harvest the trees to put the land back
into crop production or to generate cash. Sometimes, an individual owning a small
tract of forestland may decide to manage the land primarily for camping and/or
hunting and may choose to harvest certain trees that would enhance a particularly
beautiful view or increase habitat for a certain game species. Increasingly, private
lands are being leased for hunting, leading to potential landowner profits from timber
harvesting that benefits game species.
Many public forestlands include some timber harvesting. A multitude of laws
govern which federal forestlands are available for timber harvesting. For example,
some land has been designated by Congress as wilderness, where timber harvesting
is prohibited. Section 6(k) of NFMA requires the agency to designate lands that are
not “suited for timber production, considering physical, economic, and other per-
tinent factors.” And, as noted earlier, national forest lands and resources are managed
for a variety of purposes under the Multiple-Use Sustained-Yield Act of 1960.
Harvesting level and other silvicultural decisions for the national forests are
determined in land and resource management plans developed for each forest, a
planning process mandated by NFMA. Because the national forests are essentially
owned by the public, NFMA requires the Forest Service to involve the public in the
planning process, to enable the Forest Service to understand the values and goals the
public envisions for those forests. These objectives differ for various tracts of land,
with some areas managed for more than one resource and objective at the same time.
Objectives can include producing and/or protecting: water, timber, minerals, and
forage; wildlife, fisheries, and other animal habitat; biological diversity; recreation and
aesthetics; wilderness; research; and other resources and values.
Public opinion about how federal lands should be managed change over time and
have become a greater influence in selecting silvicultural systems in recent years.
Public attitudes especially with regard to clearcutting have become a factor ... that
can no longer be ignored by the land manager.... The selection of a silvicultural
system is guided by what people think they want as well as by what is biologically²⁷

possible, technically feasible, and economically realistic.
Nelson S. Loftus and Richard O. Fitzgerald. “An Overview of the Ecological Basis for²⁷
(continued...)

One forestry textbook describes silviculture as “all the manipulating operations
that go into the development and maintenance of a socially determined form of forest
stand” (emphasis added). This emphasizes that, particularly for publicly-owned²⁸
forests, the person carrying out the activities on the ground is not necessarily the
decisionmaker regarding what type of operation should be applied. Management
goals and limitations for the land and its resources are determined by the landowner
— the public in the case of federal lands — and the acceptable silvicultural system and
other management operations are then chosen and applied within those limitations to
achieve those objectives.
Selecting Clearcutting as a Silvicultural System
Many of the concerns over clearcutting result because the damages caused by
abuses of clearcutting are more apparent than are the damages caused by misuse of
other regeneration harvesting systems. A study on the use of clearcutting in Maine
describes these concerns thoroughly. Although written about clearcutting in Maine,
many of the sentiments discussed in this report also explain views about clearcutting
throughout the United States:
[It] is a reaction against abusive, overused clear-cutting and intensive, industrial
monoculture of trees. It is based on the belief that most nontimber values of²⁹
forests are best fostered by eliminating clearcutting from consideration.
Abuses of clearcutting are highly visible, while abuses of other cutting methods are
not. Logging a selection cut on wet soil with poor skidtrail layout can result in as
much erosion as clearcutting. Mishandled selection cutting over several rotations
can undermine stand productivity and eliminate desirable species. Managing
without clearcutting and cutting the same total volume means that more acres must
be logged to obtain a given harvest volume, and more roads constructed. Selection
cuttings, when poorly managed, often lead to root and stem damage that can sap³⁰
future productivity.
Shoddy, exploitive clearcutting is clearly one of the more destructive forest
management practices .... It is not forestry and it is certainly not land

(...continued)²⁷
Silvicultural Systems." The Scientific Basis for Silvicultural and Management Decisions in
the National Forest System. [Russell M. Burns, technical compiler.] USDA Forest Service
Gen. Tech. Rept. WO-55. Washington, DC: U.S. Govt. Print. Off., 1989. p. 4.
Grant W. Sharpe, Clare W. Hendee, and Wenonah E. Sharpe. Introduction to Forestry, 5²⁸^th
ed. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1986. p. 186.
The Irland Group. Clearcutting as a Management Practice in Maine Forests: Re-port to²⁹
the Maine Department of Conservation, Forests for the Future Program. Augusta, ME:

1988. Part 2, p. 39.

Ibid., Part 1, pp. 30-31.³⁰

stewardship.... Clearcutting in these cases is simply cheap logging and not a³¹
planned silvicultural practice.
Clearcutting is a financially efficient silvicultural method for harvesting timber
and regenerating stands. As described above, the environmental effects of clear-
cutting are generally no worse than under other silvicultural systems, if properly
planned and administered. Silvicultural treatments — under clearcutting or other
systems — can only be judged by how well they are applied on the ground. However,
such monitoring has not been performed at a level to determine the quality of timber
harvesting efforts.
Planned, supervised clearcutting has an important role to play in modern forestry.
When due regard is given to the [specific] conditions ... clearcutting contributes
to forest management objectives without significant environmental damage. To
meet this test, however, cutting must be carefully planned and coordinated with
other resource values.
But to say that clearcutting, properly applied, has a role is to beg a major
question. That question, for land stewardship as well as for public policy, is: “how
many clearcutting operations actually are properly done?” The answer,
unfortunately, is not known in any statistical sense, for clearcutting or for its³²
alternatives.
Much of the public outcry against clearcutting, and demand for reducing its use
in the national forests, has its basis in section 6(g)(3)(F)(i) of NFMA, which directs
the use of clearcutting only where “it is determined to be the optimum method ... to
meet the objectives and requirements of the relevant land management plan.” When
written, these guidelines were thought to have been specific enough to prevent the
overuse and abuse of clearcutting, while still allowing the agency the flexibility to
choose when and where to clearcut. Despite such direction, the use of clearcutting
in the national forests has apparently not declined as much as many believe it should.
Given the agency's history, many do not believe the Forest Service can or should
be trusted to comply with public desires and congressional guidelines for the proper
use of clearcutting and seek to ban clearcutting from use on the national forests. In
citing apparent continued abuses — and implying that clearcutting is not the optimum
method for achieving objectives and has not always been properly planned and
implemented — they argue that the Forest Service should not be allowed to use this
useful but potentially abusive silvicultural tool.
However, a ban on clearcutting would not necessarily stop abusive and harmful
land management practices. As stated above, many of the problems associated with
clearcutting result from its implementation on the ground; clearcutting may have been
an appropriate silvicultural choice for the species, the setting, and the site to achieve
the stated goals, but the sale and road layout and design were inconsistent with the
goals or were applied without enough environmental safeguards. Similarly,
clearcutting may be publicly acceptable in one area, but not another. Such potential

Ibid., Part 1, pp. 35-36.³¹
Ibid., Part 1, p. 36.³²

conflicts can happen not only with clearcutting, but with any silvicultural method.
Selection harvesting was used widely in the early development of American forest
resources, and led to much high-grading of the forests (harvesting the desired high-
quality timber while leaving the less desirable species and unmerchantable trees as the
source for natural regeneration). As a result, the character of many forestlands,
especially federal forests in the east, now differs substantially from pre-settlement
conditions. Also, more roads are typically required for selection harvesting systems
than for clearcutting, and since road building is often the major cause of soil erosion
and stream siltation associated with timber harvests, substituting selection harvesting
for clearcutting potentially could cause more environmental degradation.
The issue is how to assure that the choice of a silvicultural system and the
implementation of the management practices will achieve the stated goals for federal
land and resource management. Congress' enacting specific management restrictions,
such as a ban on clearcutting on national forests, would remove much of the flexi-
bility and discretion of agency employees in managing the lands entrusted to their
stewardship. However, if public trust continues to be eroded by persistent use of
clearcutting when and where the public objects, and by continued environmental
damage from clearcutting, pressure for congressional intervention will likely continue
and increase.

Bibliography
Aplet, Gregory H., Nels Johnson, Jeffrey T. Olson, and V. Alaric Sample, eds.
Defining Sustainable Forestry. Washington, DC: Island Press, 1993. 328 p.
Barrett, John W. Regional Silviculture of the United States. New York, NY: John
Wiley & Sons, 1980. 551 pp.
Horowitz, Eleanor C.J. Clearcutting: A View from the Top. Washington, DC:
Acropolis Books Ltd., 1974. 179 pp.
The Irland Group. Clearcutting as a Management Practice in Maine Forests. Report
to the Maine Department of Conservation. 2 parts. August, ME: 1988. 98 pp.
Kohm, Kathryn A. and Jerry F. Franklin, eds. Creating a Forestry for the 21 Cen-^st
tury: the Science of Ecosystem Management. Washington, DC: Island Press,

1997. X pp.

Smith, David M. The Practice of Silviculture. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons,

1962. 578 pp.

U.S. Congress, Senate Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, Subcommittee on
Public Lands. Clearcutting on Federal Timberlands. 92 Cong., 2 Sess.^nd^nd
Washington, DC: U.S. Govt. Print. Off., Mar. 1972. 13 pp.
U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Forest Service. Forest Health Through Silviculture. Pro-
ceedings of the 1995 National Silviculture Workshop. [Lane G. Askew, Comp.]
Gen. Tech. Rept. RM-GTR-267. Fort Collins, CO: Sept. 1995. 246 p.
_____. The Scientific Basis for Silvicultural and Management Decisions in the
National Forest System. [Russell M. Burns, Tech. Com.] Gen. Tech. Rept.
WO-55. Washington, DC: U.S. Govt. Print. Off., Sept 1989. 190 pp.
_____. Silvicultural Systems for the Major Forest Types of the United States.
[Russell M. Burns, Tech. Com.] Agriculture Handbook No. 445. Washington,
DC: U.S. Govt. Print. Off., Dec. 1983. 191 pp.
_____. Uneven-aged Silviculture and Management in the United States.
Washington, DC: U.S. Govt. Print. Off., Feb. 1978. 234 pp.
Walstad, John D. and Peter J. Kuch, eds. Forest Vegetation Management for Conifer
Production. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, 1987. 523 p.
Western Wildlands, vol. 17, no. 4 (Winter 1992). “THIS ISSUE: New Forestry.
What Is It? Why Now? And Where Do We Go From Here?”
Wood, Nancy. Clearcut. The Deforestation of America. San Francisco, CA: Sierra
Club Books, 1971. 151 p.

Appendix A:
Definitions of Silvicultural Systems
The following definitions describe the four primary silvicultural systems used to
harvest timber and regenerate forests in the United States: clearcutting, seed-tree,
shelterwood, and selection harvesting. The first three — clearcutting, seed-tree, and
shelterwood systems — are even-aged management systems which result in stands of
trees that are essentially the same age and often, but not necessarily, the same size.
The fourth system — selection harvesting — is an uneven-aged management system,
resulting in stands with intermingled trees of many ages and a variety of sizes. These
definitions are taken from the USDA Forest Service publication, Silvicultural Systems
for the Major Forest Types of the United States, Agriculture Handbook No. 445
(Dec. 1983).³³
The Clearcutting System
“Clearcutting is the harvesting in one cut of all trees on an area for the purpose
of creating a new, even-aged stand.... Regeneration is obtained through natural
seeding, through sprouting of trees that were in or under the cut stand, or through
planting or direct seeding. This system requires careful location of boundaries to fit
the landscape and appropriate cleanup of debris to improve the appearance of the
harvested area. The absence of reserved trees on the clearcut area facilitates site
preparation and other area-wide cultural treatments.”
The Seed-Tree System
“The seed-tree system involves harvesting nearly all the timber on the selected
area in one cut. A few of the better trees of the desired species are left well distri-
buted over the area to reseed naturally. When feasible, the seed trees are harvested
after regeneration is established. This system applies mainly to conifers.”
The Shelterwood System
“In the shelterwood system, the mature stand is removed in a series of cuts [over
a relatively few years]. Regeneration of the new stand occurs under the cover of a
partial canopy or shelterwood. A final harvest cut removes the shelterwood and
permits the new stand to develop in the open as an even-aged stand. This system
provides a continuing cover of either large or small trees. It is especially adapted to
species or sites where shelter is needed for the new reproduction, or where the
shelterwood gives the desired re-generation an advantage over undesired competing
vegetation.”

For more information, see a general text on silviculture, such as Smith, The Practice of³³
Silviculture.

The Selection System
“The selection system involves the removal of mature and immature trees either
singly or in groups at intervals. Regeneration is established almost continuously. The
objective is maintenance of an uneven-aged stand, with trees of different ages or sizes
intermingled singly or in groups. When properly applied, the system is esthetically
pleasing, but is difficult to apply successfully in most forest types. The two types of
selection are individual tree selection and group selection.
“Individual (single) tree selection involves the removal of individual trees
rather than groups of trees. In mixed stands it leads to an increase in the proportion
of shade-tolerant species in the forest.
“Group selection can be used to maintain a higher proportion of less shade
tolerant species in a mixture than individual tree selection. For this purpose larger
groups are more effective than smaller ones. In Eastern timber types, groups a frac-
tion of an acre in size are generally suitable. In some Western timber types, where the
stands are open or the trees are very tall, the groups may be as large as an acre or
two. When groups are of maximum size, they resemble small clearcut patches. The
group selection is distinguished from clearcutting in that the intent of group selection
is ultimately to create a balance of age or size classes in intimate mixture or in a
mosaic of small contiguous groups throughout the forest.”

Appendix B:
National Forest Management Act of 1976
Act of October 22, 1976; Public Law 94-588, 90 Stat. 2949. 16 U.S.C. 1604, et al.
Section 6. National Forest System Resource Planning.— ...
(g) ... The regulations shall include, but not be limited to— ...
(3) specifying guidelines which— ...
(D) permit increases in harvest levels based on intensified management practices,
... if (i) such practices justify increasing the harvests in accordance with the Multiple-
Use Sustained-Yield Act of 1960, and (ii) such harvest levels are decreased at the end
of the planning period if such practices cannot be successfully implemented or if funds
are not received to permit such practices to continue substantially as planned;
(E) insure that timber will be harvested from National Forest System lands only
where—
(i) soil, slope, or other watershed conditions will not be irreversibly damaged;
(ii) there is assurance that such lands can be adequately restocked within five
years after harvest;
(iii) protection is provided for streams, streambanks, shorelines, lakes, wet-
lands, and other bodies of water from detrimental changes in water temperature,
blockages of water courses, and deposits of sediment, where harvests are likely to
seriously and adversely affect water conditions or fish habitat; and
(iv) the harvesting system to be used is not selected primarily because it will
give the greatest dollar return or the greatest unit output of timber; and
(F) insure that clearcutting, seed tree cutting, shelterwood cutting, and other cuts
designed to regenerate an even-aged stand of timber will be used as a cutting method on
National Forest System lands only where—
(i) for clearcutting, it is determined to be the optimum method, and for other
such cuts it is determined to be appropriate, to meet the objectives and
requirements of the relevant land management plan;
(ii) the interdisciplinary review as determined by the Secretary has been
completed and the potential environmental, biological, esthetic, engineering, and
economic impacts on each advertised sale area have been assessed, as well as the
consistency of the sale with the multiple use of the general area;
(iii) cut blocks, patches, or strips are shaped and blended to the extent
practicable with the natural terrain;
(iv) there are established according to geographic area, forest types, or other
suitable classifications the maximum size limits for areas to be cut in one harvest
operation, including provision to exceed the established limits after appropriate
public notice and review by the responsible Forest Service officer one level above
the Forest Service officer who normally would approve the harvest proposal;
Provided, That such limits shall not apply to the size of areas harvested as a result
of natural catastrophic conditions such as fire, insect and disease attack, or
windstorm; and
(v) such cuts are carried out in a manner consistent with the protection of
soil, watershed, fish, wildlife, recreation, and esthetic resources, and the re-
generation of the timber resource.

Appendix C:
Acres Harvested in the National Forest System
by Cutting Method, and Their Relative Importance
The following tables present Forest Service data on timber harvesting by silvi-
cultural treatment for the nine Forest Service regions since FY1984.. The tables are
numbered to correspond to the number of each region (e.g., table 1 presents Region
1 data); there is no table 7, because Forest Service Region 7 was merged into Region
9 in 1966. In addition, the aggregate National Forest System data are presented in
table 11.
Part a of each table presents the acres cut under each cutting system, with the
regeneration harvesting data above the bold-face line (and with shelterwood and seed-
tree harvesting combined under “Even-age/final”); the data between the bold-face
lines are, first, the sum of regeneration harvesting, and then the other (non-
regeneration) harvesting methods, including the initial cut under shelterwood and
seed-tree harvesting (“Even-age/prep”) as well as thinning (i.e., “Intermediate”) and
salvage (i.e., “Sanitation”).
Part b of each table presents the share (percentage) of the acres harvested by
each cutting system. The data above the bold-face line are the share of regeneration
harvest acres (and thus the sum is 100%), while the data below the bold-face line
(including total regeneration harvesting) are the share of total acres harvested. Thus,
for example, clearcut acres in FY1984 in Region 1 (first column of table 1b) were
40.4% of regeneration harvest acres, while regeneration harvest acres were 48.4% of
total harvest acres; clearcut acres, as a percent of total harvest acres, were 19.6% (=

40.4% times 48.4% = 8,225 clearcut acres divided by 42,060 total harvest acres).

Also, because acres cut are presented in thousands of acres, the totals and shares
presented may differ slightly from the apparent data because of rounding errors.

Table 1a. Total Acres Cut (in thousands of acres) by Cutting System
in Region 1 (northern Idaho and Montana)
^{Region 1 Total}^FY84^FY85^FY86^FY87^FY88^FY89^FY90^FY91^FY92^FY93^FY94^FY95^FY96^FY97
^Clearcutting^8.2^10.1^14.1^18.8^16.6^27.6^25.8^20.3^22.0^15.2^12.6^6.5^5.9^5.6
^{Even-age/final}^9.1^6.9^7.7^5.9^6.8^11.3^7.8^8.2^9.3^6.6^6.5^4.0^3.0^3.1
^Selection^3.1^2.7^2.1^1.9^1.0^0.8^0.8^0.7^1.4^1.6^1.5^2.2^1.4^0.8
^Regeneration^20.4^19.7^23.9^26.6^24.3^39.7^34.5^29.2^32.6^23.4^20.6^12.7^10.3^9.5
^{Even-age/prep}^13.6^14.3^12.8^17.3^13.7^14.3^17.1^12.0^9.3^9.9^7.9^6.4^6.3^6.9
^Intermediate^3.1^2.6^1.7^3.5^0.9^3.1^2.9^2.7^1.9^2.7^1.0^1.5^4.1^5.2
⁹¹⁷^Sanitation^5.0^4.8^5.9^6.1^8.9^7.7^5.2^5.5^7.6^7.7^11.0^8.0^11.8^14.7
^Special^0.0^0.0^0.0^0.0^0.1^0.3^0.3^0.7^0.2^0.3^0.7^0.8^0.8^0.7
ⁱ^ki/CRS-98-^Total^42.1^41.5^44.4^53.6^48.0^65.1^60.0^50.1^54.8^44.0^41.2^29.4^33.3^37.0
^g/w
^s^.or
^le^akTable 1b. Relative Importance of Cutting Methods in Region 1
^://wiki
^h^ttp^{Region 1}^FY84^FY85^FY86^FY87^FY88^FY89^FY90^FY91^FY92^FY93^FY94^FY95^FY96^FY97
^Clearcutting^40.4%^51.3%^59.0%^70.7%^68.1%^69.5%^75.0%^69.3%^67.3%^65.0%^61.0%^51.1%^56.9%^58.2%
^{Even-age/final}^44.6%^35.2%^32.1%^22.1%^27.8%^28.5%^22.6%^28.3%^28.5%^28.1%^31.7%^31.6%^29.0%^32.9%
^Selection^15.0%^13.5%^8.9%^7.2%^4.1%^2.0%^2.4%^2.4%^4.2%^6.9%^7.2%^17.3%^14.0%^8.9%
^Regeneration^48.4%^47.6%^53.9%^49.6%^50.7%^61.0%^57.5%^58.2%^59.5%^53.2%^50.1%^43.2%^30.9%^25.8%
^{Even-age/prep}^32.2%^34.6%^29.0%^32.3%^28.6%^22.0%^28.5%^23.9%^22.7%^22.4%^19.2%^21.7%^18.9%^18.5%
^Intermediate^7.5%^6.2%^3.8%^6.6%^1.9%^4.7%^4.9%^5.5%^3.5%^6.1%^2.5%^5.0%^12.4%^14.0%
^Sanitation^11.9%^11.7%^13.4%^11.4%^18.5%^11.8%^8.6%^11.0%^13.9%^17.5%^26.6%^27.2%^35.5%^39.7%
^Special^0.0%^0.0%^0.0%^0.0%^0.3%^0.5%^0.5%^1.4%^0.4%^0.8%^1.6%^2.9%^2.3%^2.0%

Table 2a. Total Acres Cut (in thousands of acres) by Cutting System
in Region 2 (Colorado, South Dakota, and Wyoming)
^{Region 2 Total}^FY84^FY85^FY86^FY87^FY88^FY89^FY90^FY91^FY92^FY93^FY94^FY95^FY96^FY97
^Clearcutting^1.9^2.7^2.9^3.8^4.9^5.8^7.9^6.5^7.1^4.1^3.9^1.9^2.3^1.2
^{Even-age/final}^2.6^2.1^3.0^2.1^4.2^6.3^10.7^12.4^17.1^10.2^9.9^8.1^4.6^1.7
^Selection^0.6^0.1^0.5^0.3^0.7^1.1^0.9^0.8^0.9^3.2^4.2^3.2^6.0^2.5
^Regeneration^5.1^5.0^6.4^6.2^9.9^13.2^19.5^19.7^25.1^17.6^18.0^13.1^12.9^5.4
^{Even-age/prep}^3.7^9.4^8.6^8.4^19.3^21.1^23.5^21.1^18.2^17.3^11.5^9.6^8.1^8.7
^Intermediate^8.9^11.5^15.4^25.8^16.3^17.0^12.2^10.3^13.9^4.7^6.8^3.8^4.4^4.3
⁹¹⁷^Sanitation^9.2^4.7^4.4^2.4^3.8^5.6^3.9^4.7^8.4^4.6^6.9^2.8^3.5^2.3
^Special^0.2^<0.1^<0.1^0.6^<0.1^0.4^1.0^1.1^3.7^3.3^2.6^1.2^1.4^0.5
ⁱ^ki/CRS-98-^Total^27.1^30.5^34.8^43.3^49.3^57.3^60.1^56.8^69.3^47.4^45.9^30.4^30.2^21.1
^g/w
^s^.or
^le^akTable 2b. Relative Importance of Cutting Methods in Region 2
^://wiki
^h^ttp^{Region 2}^FY84^FY85^FY86^FY87^FY88^FY89^FY90^FY91^FY92^FY93^FY94^FY95^FY96^FY97
^Clearcutting^37.0%^54.1%^44.9%^62.3%^50.0%^43.9%^40.7%^33.1%^28.1%^23.6%^21.9%^14.4%^17.6%^21.8%
^{Even-age/final}^51.0%^43.2%^47.4%^33.5%^43.0%^47.9%^54.9%^62.8%^68.3%^58.0%^54.9%^61.5%^35.6%^30.8%
^Selection^12.0%^2.8%^7.7%^4.2%^7.0%^8.2%^4.4%^4.1%^3.6%^18.4%^23.2%^24.1%^46.8%^47.4%
^Regeneration^18.8%^16.3%^18.5%^14.2%^20.0%^23.0%^32.4%^34.6%^36.2%^37.0%^39.3%^43.0%^42.7%^25.4%
^{Even-age/prep}^13.7%^30.9%^24.6%^19.3%^39.2%^36.8%^39.1%^37.1%^26.2%^36.4%^25.0%^31.5%^26.7%^41.0%
^Intermediate^32.7%^37.5%^44.2%^59.7%^32.9%^29.7%^20.3%^18.2%^20.0%^10.0%^14.9%^12.6%^14.5%^20.5%
^Sanitation^34.1%^15.3%^12.6%^5.5%^7.8%^9.8%^6.6%^8.2%^12.1%^9.6%^15.1%^9.0%^11.7%^10.7%
^Special^0.7%^<0.1^0.1%^1.3%^0.1%^0.7%^1.6%^1.9%^5.4%^7.0%^5.7%^3.9%^4.5%^2.3%
^%

Table 3a. Total Acres Cut (in thousands of acres) by Cutting System
in Region 3 (Arizona and New Mexico)
^{Region 3 Total}^FY84^FY85^FY86^FY87^FY88^FY89^FY90^FY91^FY92^FY93^FY94^FY95^FY96^FY97
^Clearcutting^0.3^0.2^<0.1^0.0^<0.1^0.4^0.2^0.4^0.1^0.2^0.4^<0.1^0.0^0.0
^{Even-age/final}^14.0^13.4^12.9^4.3^4.4^21.1^12.5^16.0^4.4^6.2^1.6^1.8^1.0^0.0
^Selection^1.0^0.1^0.0^0.0^<0.1^0.1^0.9^0.4^0.9^2.0^1.6^1.1^0.1^0.3
^Regeneration^15.3^13.6^13.0^4.3^4.5^21.6^13.6^16.8^5.4^8.3^3.6^2.9^1.1^0.3
^{Even-age/prep}^5.5^4.8^2.2^2.5^0.8^8.7^11.3^13.6^5.5^5.0^1.6^1.5^0.4^0.4
^Intermediate^7.9^11.1^4.5^2.4^5.1^26.3^26.4^35.1^31.2^20.1^11.8^12.4^2.2^6.6
⁹¹⁷^Sanitation^5.9^4.7^0.8^<0.1^2.1^3.3^1.3^4.2^2.5^5.0^3.8^1.5^0.4^5.4
^Special^0.2^<0.1^0.0^0.0^0.0^0.0^0.0^0.1^0.1^1.4^0.4^0.5^0.1^<0.1
ⁱ^ki/CRS-98-^Total^34.8^34.2^20.4^9.2^12.4^59.8^52.6^69.9^44.7^39.9^21.2^18.8^4.2^12.7
^g/w
^s^.or
^le^akTable 3b. Relative Importance of Cutting Methods in Region 3
^://wiki
^h^ttp^{Region 3}^FY84^FY85^FY86^FY87^FY88^FY89^FY90^FY91^FY92^FY93^FY94^FY95^FY96^FY97
^Clearcutting^2.0%^1.4%^0.1%^0.0%^1.1%^1.8%^1.7%^2.5%^2.4%^1.9%^10.3%^0.5%^0.0%^0.0%
^{Even-age/final}^91.6%^98.1%^99.9%^100%^98.6%^98.0%^91.9%^95.3%^81.4%^74.3%^45.6%^63.0%^91.7%^0.0%
^Selection^6.4%^0.5%^0.0%^0.0%^0.3%^0.3%^6.4%^2.2%^16.2%^23.8%^44.0%^36.5%^8.3%^100%
^Regeneration^43.8%^39.8%^63.4%^46.6%^35.9%^36.0%^25.9%^24.1%^12.1%^20.8%^17.0%^15.6%^26.4%^2.0%
^{Even-age/prep}^15.9%^13.9%^10.9%^27.0%^6.2%^14.5%^21.5%^19.4%^12.4%^12.6%^7.3%^7.9%^8.8%^3.5%
^Intermediate^22.6%^32.5%^21.8%^26.0%^40.7%^44.0%^50.2%^50.3%^69.8%^50.5%^55.8%^65.7%^52.6%^52.2%
^Sanitation^17.0%^13.7%^3.9%^0.4%^17.2%^5.4%^2.4%^6.1%^5.5%^12.5%^18.1%^8.2%^8.8%^42.3%
^Special^0.7%^0.1%^0.0%^0.0%^0.0%^0.0%^0.0%^0.2%^0.3%^3.6%^1.8%^2.6%^3.4%^<0.1
^%

Table 4a. Total Acres Cut (in thousands of acres) by Cutting System
in Region 4 (southern Idaho, Nevada, Utah, and Wyoming)
^{Region 4 Total}^FY84^FY85^FY86^FY87^FY88^FY89^FY90^FY91^FY92^FY93^FY94^FY95^FY96^FY97
^Clearcutting^2.5^1.2^2.6^2.8^1.9^1.5^9.3^11.3^9.5^4.9^4.7^2.7^2.7^1.6
^{Even-age/final}^6.2^0.8^1.0^1.3^4.5^3.2^2.6^2.0^3.0^3.1^1.1^0.8^5.5^1.5
^Selection^9.2^0.9^3.3^6.3^1.0^1.6^2.9^2.0^4.7^3.8^0.6^0.7^2.1^1.3
^Regeneration^17.9^2.8^6.9^10.4^7.4^6.3^14.8^15.2^17.2^11.8^6.5^4.2^10.4^4.4
^{Even-age/prep}^2.9^5.3^4.3^3.6^2.6^2.6^4.5^7.1^5.0^4.8^3.2^1.5^4.0^1.5
^Intermediate^1.4^0.4^1.0^2.2^2.5^3.8^6.7^4.2^6.6^2.9^2.1^3.5^5.2^4.1
⁹¹⁷^Sanitation^4.3^7.1^6.1^5.7^1.3^0.9^6.8^13.0^6.4^89.2^52.2^25.3^17.8^14.0
^Special^0.1^0.4^0.2^0.0^0.0^0.1^<0.1^0.3^0.2^>0.1^0.1^0.4^0.5^0.1
ⁱ^ki/CRS-98-^Total^26.6^16.0^18.5^21.9^13.9^13.8^32.9^39.9^35.5^108.7^64.1^34.9^37.9^24.1
^g/w
^s^.or
^le^akTable 4b. Relative Importance of Cutting Methods in Region 4
^://wiki
^h^ttp^{Region 4}^FY84^FY85^FY86^FY87^FY88^FY89^FY90^FY91^FY92^FY93^FY94^FY95^FY96^FY97
^Clearcutting^14.1%^40.7%^38.0%^26.9%^26.0%^24.0%^62.5%^73.9%^55.1%^41.5%^73.3%^64.7%^26.0%^36.2%
^{Even-age/final}^34.7%^27.1%^14.9%^12.2%^61.0%^51.4%^17.7%^13.3%^17.3%^26.0%^17.4%^18.6%^53.5%^33.4%
^Selection^51.2%^32.2%^47.2%^60.9%^13.0%^24.6%^19.8%^12.8%^27.5%^32.5%^9.3%^16.7%^20.5%^30.4%
^Regeneration^67.3%^17.7%^37.3%^47.3%^53.7%^46.0%^45.1%^38.2%^48.5%^10.9%^10.1%^11.9%^27.3%^18.2%
^{Even-age/prep}^10.9%^33.2%^23.5%^16.5%^18.9%^18.9%^13.8%^17.9%^14.2%^4.4%^5.0%^4.4%^10.6%^6.0%
^Intermediate^5.1%^2.3%^5.2%^10.0%^17.9%^27.6%^20.5%^10.5%^18.6%^2.7%^3.3%^10.1%^13.8%^17.1%
^Sanitation^16.2%^44.5%^32.8%^26.2%^9.5%^6.5%^20.5%^32.6%^18.1%^82.0%^81.5%^72.4%^47.0%^58.1%
^Special^0.5%^2.3%^1.2%^0.0%^0.0%^1.0%^0.1%^0.8%^0.6%^<0.1^0.1%^1.2%^1.2%^0.6%
^%

Table 5a. Total Acres Cut (in thousands of acres) by Cutting System
in Region 5 (California)
^{Region 5 Total}^FY84^FY85^FY86^FY87^FY88^FY89^FY90^FY91^FY92^FY93^FY94^FY95^FY96^FY97
^Clearcutting^14.4^22.0^12.9^18.5^35.8^11.1^12.4^12.0^9.8^10.6^7.5^3.0^2.4^1.2
^{Even-age/final}^21.5^34.0^4.8^5.8^20.2^19.7^10.8^10.7^6.4^6.8^9.7^7.4^0.8^0.4
^Selection^9.8^11.1^2.2^2.7^6.7^3.7^3.9^3.5^5.2^4.7^3.9^7.4^1.3^0.7
^Regeneration^45.8^67.1^19.9^27.0^62.8^34.5^27.1^26.2^21.5^22.2^21.2^17.8^4.5^2.3
^{Even-age/prep}^5.9^5.5^3.4^3.5^4.0^5.2^3.3^1.6^1.3^0.6^1.2^1.1^1.0^0.5
^Intermediate^4.3^6.8^5.5^6.0^5.8^1.6^2.9^3.7^4.7^6.1^5.4^8.9^11.2^17.2
⁹¹⁷^Sanitation^64.2^49.5^20.7^16.8^50.9^68.3^105.4^79.9^118.7^77.1^70.5^43.3^25.0^35.8
^Special^0.3^0.4^0.5^0.7^0.1^0.3^0.2^<0.1^<0.1^0.2^0.7^0.9^0.1^0.2
ⁱ^ki/CRS-98-^Total^120.6^129.4^49.9^54.1^123.6^109.9^138.9^111.5^146.2^106.2^99.0^71.9^41.8^56.0
^g/w
^s^.or
^le^akTable 5b. Relative Importance of Cutting Methods in Region 5
^://wiki
^h^ttp^{Region 5}^FY84^FY85^FY86^FY87^FY88^FY89^FY90^FY91^FY92^FY93^FY94^FY95^FY96^FY97
^Clearcutting^31.5%^32.7%^64.6%^68.7%^57.1%^32.3%^45.9%^45.8%^45.7%^47.9%^35.6%^16.7%^54.2%^50.7%
^{Even-age/final}^47.0%^50.7%^24.2%^21.3%^32.2%^57.0%^39.8%^41.0%^30.0%^30.8%^45.8%^41.6%^17.6%^18.8%
^Selection^21.5%^16.6%^11.3%^10.0%^10.7%^10.7%^14.3%^13.3%^24.3%^21.3%^18.6%^41.7%^28.2%^30.5%
^Regeneration^38.0%^51.9%^39.9%^49.9%^50.8%^31.4%^19.5%^23.5%^14.7%^20.9%^21.4%^24.7%^10.7%^4.1%
^{Even-age/prep}^4.9%^4.3%^6.8%^6.5%^3.3%^4.7%^2.4%^1.4%^0.9%^0.6%^1.2%^1.6%^2.3%^0.8%
^Intermediate^3.6%^5.2%^11.0%^11.1%^4.7%^1.5%^2.1%^3.3%^3.2%^5.8%^5.5%^12.4%^26.8%^30.7%
^Sanitation^53.3%^38.3%^41.4%^31.1%^41.2%^62.2%^75.9%^71.7%^81.2%^72.6%^71.2%^60.1%^59.9%^63.9%
^Special^0.2%^0.3%^0.9%^1.4%^0.1%^0.3%^0.2%^<0.1^<0.1^0.2%^0.7%^1.2%^0.3%^0.4%
^%^%

Table 6a. Total Acres Cut (in thousands of acres) by Cutting System
in Region 6 (Oregon and Washington)
^{Region 6 Total}^FY84^FY85^FY86^FY87^FY88^FY89^FY90^FY91^FY92^FY93^FY94^FY95^FY96^FY97
^Clearcutting^42.5^41.3^42.1^51.4^68.5^81.5^59.5^49.7^29.3^22.1^10.9^9.5^4.5^4.7
^{Even-age/final}^47.8^61.3^33.9^42.1^58.7^80.1^68.0^59.6^43.7^25.7^25.3^11.0^3.5^2.1
^Selection^6.3^5.7^11.8^4.6^13.3^11.1^11.6^22.5^15.8^13.2^11.4^10.8^11.2^8.9
^Regeneration^96.6^108.3^87.9^98.0^140.5^172.6^139.1^131.9^88.9^61.0^47.6^31.3^19.2^15.7
^{Even-age/prep}^17.9^17.7^14.3^27.1^23.3^51.0^48.4^33.8^26.0^20.2^24.5^13.2^6.6^9.4
^Intermediate^9.1^9.7^6.9^6.5^10.0^16.6^21.8^14.5^17.2^9.5^12.0^12.0^13.1^22.4
⁹¹⁷^Sanitation^40.7^31.7^8.3^11.8^6.8^31.4^33.6^61.5^16.4^47.6^26.1^33.0^60.1^68.9
^Special^0.1^0.5^0.2^0.9^1.1^1.0^0.3^2.0^1.4^0.1^1.8^1.0^0.2^0.6
ⁱ^ki/CRS-98-^Total^164.4^167.9^117.5^144.4^181.6^272.6^243.2^243.8^149.9^138.4^112.0^90.6^99.2^117.0
^g/w
^s^.or
^le^akTable 6b. Relative Importance of Cutting Methods in Region 6
^://wiki
^h^ttp^{Region 6}^FY84^FY85^FY86^FY87^FY88^FY89^FY90^FY91^FY92^FY93^FY94^FY95^FY96^FY97
^Clearcutting^44.0%^38.1%^47.9%^52.4%^48.8%^47.2%^42.8%^37.7%^33.0%^36.1%^23.0%^30.4%^23.3%^29.8%
^{Even-age/final}^49.4%^56.7%^38.6%^42.9%^41.8%^46.4%^48.9%^45.2%^49.2%^42.2%^53.0%^35.0%^18.3%^13.5%
^Selection^6.5%^5.2%^13.5%^4.7%^9.5%^6.4%^8.3%^17.1%^17.8%^21.7%^24.0%^34.6%^58.4%^56.7%
^Regeneration^58.8%^64.5%^74.8%^67.9%^77.5%^63.3%^57.2%^54.1%^59.3%^44.1%^42.5%^34.6%^19.4%^13.4%
^{Even-age/prep}^10.9%^10.5%^12.1%^18.8%^12.8%^18.7%^19.9%^13.9%^17.4%^14.6%^21.9%^14.6%^6.6%^8.0%
^Intermediate^5.5%^5.8%^5.9%^4.5%^5.5%^6.1%^9.0%^6.0%^11.5%^6.9%^10.7%^13.2%^13.2%^19.2%
^Sanitation^24.7%^18.9%^7.1%^8.2%^3.7%^11.5%^13.8%^25.2%^11.0%^34.4%^23.3%^36.5%^60.6%^59.9%
^Special^<0.1^0.3%^0.1%^0.6%^0.6%^0.4%^0.1%^0.8%^0.9%^<0.1^1.6%^1.1%^0.2%^0.5%
^%^%

Table 8a. Total Acres Cut (in thousands of acres) by Cutting System
in Region 8 (Oklahoma & Texas through Virginia)
^{Region 8 Total}^FY84^FY85^FY86^FY87^FY88^FY89^FY90^FY91^FY92^FY93^FY94^FY95^FY96^FY97
^Clearcutting^106.9^108.7^97.8^97.0^90.3^66.2^55.1^34.1^34.4^30.3^18.7^13.4^9.3^9.0
^{Even-age/final}^13.6^10.8^8.5^6.2^3.6^2.5^3.9^2.6^1.7^2.1^2.0^2.0^1.4^2.1
^Selection^0.0^0.0^0.0^0.0^0.6^1.3^4.5^6.6^8.8^11.3^15.5^12.7^13.1^16.8
^Regeneration^120.5^119.6^106.2^103.3^94.5^70.0^63.4^43.3^44.9^43.6^36.2^28.2^23.8^27.7
^{Even-age/prep}^5.8^5.6^5.6^6.0^6.7^3.9^6.8^9.6^11.8^15.4^13.9^9.9^9.4^9.1
^Intermediate^104.2^93.4^75.7^81.6^74.4^50.6^70.4^51.1^60.4^58.5^62.2^53.2^61.9^51.8
⁹¹⁷^Sanitation^28.3^5.1^17.4^18.0^1.8^5.1^45.9^3.4^8.3^7.0^4.8^8.2^28.2^9.3
^Special^0.4^0.0^0.0^0.3^0.7^<0.1^0.0^<0.1^7.7^3.0^6.7^3.2^3.4^2.0
ⁱ^ki/CRS-98-^Total^259.1^223.7^205.0^209.2^178.1^129.6^186.6^107.5^133.0^127.5^123.8^102.7^126.6^100.0
^g/w
^s^.or
^le^akTable 8b. Relative Importance of Cutting Methods in Region 8
^://wiki
^h^ttp^{Region 8}^FY84^FY85^FY86^FY87^FY88^FY89^FY90^FY91^FY92^FY93^FY94^FY95^FY96^FY97
^Clearcutting^88.7%^90.9%^92.0%^94.0%^95.6%^94.6%^86.9%^78.9%^76.7%^69.5%^51.7%^47.6%^39.3%^32.6%
^{Even-age/final}^11.3%^9.1%^8.0%^6.0%^3.8%^3.6%^6.1%^5.9%^3.7%^4.7%^5.4%^7.2%^5.7%^7.5%
^Selection^0.0%^0.0%^0.0%^0.0%^0.6%^1.8%^7.0%^15.2%^19.6%^25.8%^42.9%^45.2%^55.1%^59.9%
^Regeneration^46.5%^53.5%^51.8%^49.4%^53.1%^54.0%^34.0%^40.3%^33.7%^34.2%^29.2%^27.5%^18.8%^27.7%
^{Even-age/prep}^2.2%^2.5%^2.7%^2.9%^3.8%^3.0%^3.7%^8.9%^8.8%^12.0%^11.2%^9.7%^7.4%^9.1%
^Intermediate^40.2%^41.8%^36.9%^39.0%^41.8%^39.0%^37.7%^47.6%^45.4%^45.9%^50.2%^51.8%^48.9%^51.9%
^Sanitation^10.9%^2.3%^8.5%^8.6%^1.0%^3.9%^24.6%^3.2%^6.2%^5.5%^3.9%^8.0%^22.2%^9.3%
^Special^0.1%^0.0%^0.0%^0.2%^0.4%^0.0%^0.0%^<0.1^5.8%^2.4%^5.5%^3.1%^2.7%^2.0%
^%

Table 9a. Total Acres Cut (in thousands of acres) by Cutting System
in Region 9 (Maine to Maryland to Missouri to Minnesota)
^{Region 9 Total}^FY84^FY85^FY86^FY87^FY88^FY89^FY90^FY91^FY92^FY93^FY94^FY95^FY96^FY97
^Clearcutting^59.4^54.8^54.7^56.1^55.2^49.6^44.9^41.6^38.8^34.8^32.9^24.5^25.6^20.9
^{Even-age/final}^4.1^3.6^2.4^3.4^3.0^3.8^3.8^3.3^2.1^2.8^3.4^3.2^2.9^2.9
^Selection^7.8^7.0^8.1^9.0^6.7^9.7^9.6^11.3^11.9^13.5^16.1^15.8^17.4^17.2
^Regeneration^71.3^65.4^65.3^68.5^64.9^63.1^58.3^56.2^52.8^51.1^52.4^43.5^45.8^41.0
^{Even-age/prep}^3.6^3.7^3.4^3.9^4.4^5.0^5.3^5.4^6.7^6.8^7.1^6.6^6.5^6.4
^Intermediate^36.9^38.3^36.5^44.4^42.1^43.4^45.1^38.6^45.8^48.5^43.0^38.8^38.0^36.2
⁹¹⁷^Sanitation^4.4^5.9^7.2^7.3^0.0^4.0^5.6^5.2^3.9^3.0^3.8^4.3^5.0^3.6
^Special^0.0^0.0^0.0^0.0^0.0^0.0^0.0^0.0^<0.1^<0.1^<0.1^<0.1^0.1^0.1
ⁱ^ki/CRS-98-^Total^116.3^113.3^112.3^124.1^111.7^115.5^114.2^105.4^109.3^109.5^106.3^93.2^95.5^87.4
^g/w
^s^.or
^le^akTable 9b. Relative Importance of Cutting Methods in Region 9
^://wiki
^h^ttp^{Region 9}^FY84^FY85^FY86^FY87^FY88^FY89^FY90^FY91^FY92^FY93^FY94^FY95^FY96^FY97
^Clearcutting^83.3%^83.7%^83.8%^81.9%^85.1%^78.6%^77.0%^74.0%^73.4%^68.1%^62.8%^56.3%^55.8%^51.0%
^{Even-age/final}^5.7%^5.6%^3.7%^5.0%^4.6%^6.1%^6.5%^6.0%^4.1%^5.4%^6.6%^7.4%^6.3%^7.2%
^Selection^10.9%^10.7%^12.5%^13.1%^10.3%^15.3%^16.5%^20.1%^22.5%^26.5%^30.7%^36.3%^37.9%^41.8%
^Regeneration^61.4%^57.7%^58.1%^55.2%^58.1%^54.6%^51.0%^53.3%^48.3%^46.6%^49.3%^46.7%^48.0%^47.0%
^{Even-age/prep}^3.1%^3.3%^3.0%^3.2%^3.9%^4.3%^4.6%^5.2%^6.1%^6.3%^6.6%^7.1%^6.8%^7.3%
^Intermediate^31.8%^33.8%^32.5%^35.7%^38.0%^37.6%^39.5%^36.6%^41.9%^44.3%^40.5%^41.6%^39.8%^41.4%
^Sanitation^3.8%^5.2%^6.4%^5.9%^0.0%^3.5%^4.9%^4.9%^3.6%^2.8%^3.6%^4.6%^5.3%^4.1%
^Special^0.0%^0.0%^0.0%^0.0%^0.0%^0.0%^0.0%^0.0%^<0.1^<0.1^<0.1^<0.1^0.1%^0.2%
^%^%^%^%

Table 10a. Total Acres Cut (in thousands of acres) by Cutting System
in Region 10 (Alaska)
^{Region 10 Total}^FY84^FY85^FY86^FY87^FY88^FY89^FY90^FY91^FY92^FY93^FY94^FY95^FY96^FY97
^Clearcutting^6.8^8.6^8.6^8.9^9.8^13.5^14.0^10.7^11.7^10.5^9.1^6.4^3.9^1.7
^{Even-age/final}^0.0^0.0^0.0^0.0^0.0^0.0^0.0^0.0^0.0^0.0^0.0^0.5^0.4^0.2
^Selection^0.8^0.3^0.2^0.2^<0.0^0.0^0.0^0.0^0.0^0.0^0.0^<0.0^0.0^0.1
^Regeneration^7.6^8.9^8.8^9.0^9.8^13.5^14.0^10.7^11.7^10.5^9.1^6.9^4.3^2.0
^{Even-age/prep}^0.0^0.0^0.0^0.0^0.0^0.0^0.0^0.0^0.0^<0.0^<0.0^0.1^0.1^0.0
^Intermediate^0.0^0.0^0.0^0.0^0.0^0.0^0.0^0.0^0.0^0.0^0.0^0.0^0.0^0.0
⁹¹⁷^Sanitation^<0.0^<0.0^1.2^0.9^<0.0^0.2^0.2^0.2^0.2^0.2^0.6^0.2^0.6^0.5
^Special^0.0^<0.0^<0.0^0.6^0.0^0.0^0.0^0.0^0.0^0.0^0.0^0.0^0.0^0.0
ⁱ^ki/CRS-98-^Total^7.6^8.9^10.1^10.5^9.8^13.6^14.2^10.9^11.9^10.8^9.7^7.2^5.0^2.5
^g/w
^s^.or
^le^akTable 10b. Relative Importance of Cutting Methods in Region 10
^://wiki
^h^ttp^{NFS Total}^FY84^FY85^FY86^FY87^FY88^FY89^FY90^FY91^FY92^FY93^FY94^FY95^FY96^FY97
^Clearcutting^89.3%^96.9%^97.6%^98.1%^99.9%^100%^100%^100%^100%^100%^100%^92.9%^91.4%^86.6%
^{Even-age/final}^0.0%^0.0%^0.0%^0.0%^0.0%^0.0%^0.0%^0.0%^0.0%^0.0%^0.0%^6.9%^8.6%^8.3%
^Selection^10.7%^3.1%^2.4%^1.9%^0.1%^0.0%^0.0%^0.0%^0.0%^0.0%^0.0%^0.3%^0.0%^5.1%
^Regeneration^99.9%^99.9%^87.6%^85.8%^99.8%^98.9%^98.3%^98.3%^98.1%^97.7%^93.5%^95.6%^86.3%^78.4%
^{Even-age/prep}^0.0%^0.0%^0.0%^0.0%^0.0%^0.0%^0.0%^0.0%^0.0%^<0.1^<0.1^2.0%^1.0%^0.0%
^%^%
^Intermediate^0.0%^0.0%^0.0%^0.0%^0.0%^0.0%^0.0%^0.0%^0.0%^0.0%^0.0%^0.0%^0.0%^0.0%
^Sanitation^0.1%^<0.1^12.2%^8.9%^0.2%^1.1%^1.7%^1.7%^1.9%^2.3%^6.3%^2.3%^12.7%^21.6%
^%
^Special^0.0%^0.1%^0.2%^5.3%^0.0%^0.0%^0.0%^0.0%^0.0%^0.0%^0.0%^0.0%^0.0%^0.0%

Table 11a. Total Acres Cut in the National Forest System by Cutting System
(in thousands of acres)
^{NFS Total}^FY84^FY85^FY86^FY87^FY88^FY89^FY90^FY91^FY92^FY93^FY94^FY95^FY96^FY97
^Clearcutting^243.0^249.5^235.7^257.4^283.1^257.2^229.2^186.6^162.7^132.7^100.8^67.9^56.6^45.9
^{Even-age/final}^118.9^133.1^74.3^71.0^105.5^148.1^120.1^115.0^87.8^63.4^59.6^38.8^23.0^14.0
^Selection^38.6^27.9^28.3^24.9^29.9^29.2^35.0^47.7^49.5^53.4^54.8^53.9^52.7^48.4
^Regeneration^400.5^410.5^338.3^353.3^418.5^434.4^384.3^349.2^300.0^249.5^215.2^160.6^132.3^108.3
^{Even-age/prep}^59.0^66.4^54.6^72.4^74.8^111.9^120.3^104.2^87.0^80.0^70.8^50.1^42.2^42.8
^Intermediate^175.8^173.7^147.2^172.4^157.4^162.4^188.4^160.3^181.6^153.1^144.4^134.0^140.1^147.8
⁹¹⁷^Sanitation^162.0^113.6^71.9^69.1^75.7^126.4^207.8^177.7^172.5^241.5^179.9^126.5^152.6^154.5
^Special^1.2^1.3^0.9^3.1^2.0^2.1^1.9^4.3^13.5^8.4^13.0^8.0^6.5^4.4
ⁱ^ki/CRS-98-^Total^798.5^765.4^612.9^670.3^728.4^837.1^902.6^795.7^754.6^732.5^623.3^479.2^473.7^457.8
^g/w
^s^.or
^le^akTable 11b. Relative Importance of Cutting Methods in the National Forest System
^://wiki
^h^ttp^NFS^FY84^FY85^FY86^FY87^FY88^FY89^FY90^FY91^FY92^FY93^FY94^FY95^FY96^FY97
^Clearcutting^60.7%^60.8%^69.7%^72.9%^67.6%^59.2%^59.6%^53.4%^54.2%^53.2%^46.8%^42.3%^42.8%^42.4%
^{Even-age/final}^29.7%^32.4%^22.0%^20.1%^25.2%^34.1%^31.3%^32.9%^29.3%^25.4%^27.7%^24.1%^17.4%^12.9%
^Selection^9.6%^6.8%^8.4%^7.0%^7.2%^6.7%^9.1%^13.7%^16.5%^21.4%^25.5%^33.6%^39.8%^44.7%
^Regeneration^50.2%^53.6%^55.2%^52.7%^57.4%^51.9%^42.6%^43.9%^39.8%^34.1%^34.5%^33.5%^27.9%^23.6%
^{Even-age/prep}^7.4%^8.7%^8.9%^10.8%^10.3%^13.4%^13.3%^13.1%^11.5%^10.9%^11.4%^10.4%^8.9%^9.4%
^Intermediate^22.0%^22.7%^24.0%^25.7%^21.6%^19.4%^20.9%^20.2%^24.1%^20.9%^23.2%^28.0%^29.6%^32.3%
^Sanitation^20.3%^14.8%^11.7%^10.3%^10.4%^15.1%^23.0%^22.3%^22.9%^33.0%^28.9%^26.4%^32.2%^33.8%
^Special^0.2%^0.2%^0.1%^0.5%^0.3%^0.2%^0.2%^0.5%^1.8%^1.1%^2.1%^1.7%^1.4%^1.0%