Overview of Management and Restoration Activities in the Salton Sea

CRS Report for Congress
Overview of Management and Restoration
Activities in the Salton Sea
Updated May 26, 2004
Pervaze A. Sheikh
Analyst in Environment and Natural Resources
Resources, Science, and Industry Division


Congressional Research Service ˜ The Library of Congress

Overview of Management and Restoration Activities
in the Salton Sea
Summary
The Salton Basin in southern California has supported many lakes and water
bodies throughout its geological history. The most recent inland water body in the
Basin is the Salton Sea, which was created from a levee break in 1905. The Salton
Sea is the largest inland water body in California. In the past several decades the
salinity of the Sea has been increasing, and is now considered a significant threat to
the health of the current Salton Sea ecosystem. Ecosystem changes in the Sea were
exemplified by several large die-offs of fish and birds that inhabit the Sea. Some of
these events included endangered species such as the brown pelican.
The Sea receives most of its water from agricultural drainage originating in the
Imperial and Coachella Valleys in California. When water transfers from agricultural
lands in these valleys to municipal water districts in San Diego were proposed to
reduce California’s reliance on water from the Colorado River, concerns about the
environmental impacts of these transfers on the Sea surfaced. The proposed water
transfers would have resulted in less water flowing into the Salton Sea, which
according to some scientists would increase the rate of evaporation in the Sea so that
salinity levels would be lethal to most fish and wildlife in less than 10 years.
Interest in restoring the Salton Sea was evident before its role in water transfers
was realized. Several studies were done by state and federal agencies to determine
baseline data about the Sea and potential management regimes for restoring the Sea.
Federal efforts to study the Sea were amplified with the Reclamation Projects
Authorization and Adjustment Act of 1992 (Title XI of P.L. 102-575), which
authorizes research to develop plans to control salinity, provide habitat to endangered
species, enhance fisheries, and protect recreational values in the Salton Sea. Federal
restoration efforts were formally initiated by The Salton Sea Recovery Act of 1998
(P.L. 105-372). This act authorizes feasibility studies and economic analyses of
various options for restoring the Salton Sea. Prospects for funding restoration in the
Sea improved when legislation containing provisions that would allocate an
estimated $300 million for restoring the Salton Sea was enacted by the State of
California.
Whether or not to restore the Salton Sea remains controversial. Some who favor
restoration argue that the value of the Sea is high because it is one of the remaining
wetland habitats in the region for migratory birds, fish, and wildlife. Further, some
argue that the Sea has potential for economic development, recreation, and tourism.
Some against restoring the Sea believe that the Sea is destined to evaporate similar
to the water bodies in the Salton Basin that preceded it (i.e., that the Sea is a lake in
natural decline). In addition, some critics suggest that the Sea is too expensive to
restore, and scientifically sound plans for restoration are not available.
This report provides a summary of management and restoration events in the
Salton Sea and will be updated as developments warrant.



Contents
In troduction ......................................................1
Background ..................................................2
Ecology of the Salton Sea.......................................4
Restoration Activities in the Salton Sea.............................6
Restoration Alternatives for the Salton Sea..........................7
Conclusion ...................................................8
List of Figures
Figure 1. Location of the Salton Sea, California..........................2
List of Tables
Appendix: Chronology of Federal Management and Restoration Activities in and
Around the Salton Sea.........................................10



Overview of Management and Restoration
Activities in the Salton Sea
Introduction
Congressional concern for securing funding and developing plans to restore the
Salton Sea stems from the value of the Sea as a habitat for federal and state listed
endangered species as well as other migrating and resident bird species, a reservoir1
for agricultural drainage, a center for recreation, and a wetland ecosystem. The
Salton Sea is located in southern California and is considered the largest inland water
body in the state (figure 1). The Salton Sea was formed in 1905 when a levee break
allowed water to flow into the Salton Basin from the Colorado River uninterrupted2
for 18 months. The Salton Sea was not the first body of water in the basin; several
other lakes have existed in the Basin throughout its geological history.3
Interest in the ecological health of the Salton Sea has amplified since 2002,
when negotiations of proposed water transfers in southern California began. The
proposed water transfers would have diverted agricultural water from farms in the
Imperial Valley to San Diego and the Coachella Valley. This was expected to result
in less water flowing into the Salton Sea, which some scientists predict would have
increased the rate of evaporation in the Sea so that salinity levels would be lethal to
most fish and wildlife in less than 10 years. Questions over how environmental
impacts in the Salton Sea would be mitigated and who ultimately would be
responsible for their costs played a large part in the negotiations. On September 12,
2003, the State of California enacted three bills that contain provisions that would
allocate an estimated $300 million for restoring the Salton Sea. These funds were
secured when the Quantification Settlement Agreement (QSA) was passed on
October 10, 2003.4 The agreement allows California to gradually reduce its over-
dependence on the Colorado River to 4.4 million acre-feet in the absence of surplus
water through voluntary agriculture-to-urban water transfers and other water supply
programs. The agreement will attempt to protect inflows to the Salton Sea for 15


1 Letters to Secretary of the Interior Gale Norton from Congressman Duncan Hunter on
December 19, 2002 and Senator Dianne Feinstein and Congresswoman Mary Bono on
January 31, 2003.
2 U.S. House of Representatives, Committee on Resources, Subcommittee on Water and
Power, Salton Sea Stabilization and Water Quality Improvement, Oversight Hearing, 105thst
Cong., 1 Sess., (Serial No. 105-60), October 3, 1997 (Washington, DC: U.S. GPO), 112 p.
3 Michael Cohen, J.I. Morrison, and E.P. Glenn, Haven or Hazard: The Ecology and Future
of the Salton Sea, (Oakland, CA: The Pacific Institute, February 1999), 63 p. (Hereafter
referred to as Cohen et al., Haven or Hazard.)
4 For more information on the QSA, see CRS Issue Brief, IB10019, Western Water Resource
Issues, by Betsy A. Cody and Pervaze A. Sheikh.

years and establish a restoration fund for the Sea. The fund will receive money from
mitigation fees collected from the sale of water transfers in the region. These acts
also authorize the creation of an advisory committee for restoration activities and set
a deadline of 2006 for the California State Resources Agency to prepare a restoration
study of the Salton Sea.
Figure 1. Location of the Salton Sea, California
Background
The Salton Basin, where the Salton Sea is located, has supported many lakes and
water bodies throughout its geological history. The last of these prehistoric water
bodies was Lake Cahuilla, which dried up nearly 400 years ago. In 1901, a portion
of the Colorado River was diverted through the Imperial canal to irrigate agricultural
fields in the Salton Basin. Water flowed through the New Alamo River and into the
Imperial Valley from this channel.5 In 1905, water from spring floods broke through
a levee diverting a portion of the Colorado River, and began forming the Salton Sea.
Water flowed uninterrupted for nearly 18 months into the Salton Sea before it could
be turned back to the Gulf of California. The Sea formed as a closed basin with no
outlets. (This is still valid today.) The Sea consisted largely of fresh water at its
inception, and immediately began to evaporate and increase in salinity.
Due to the construction of the Hoover Dam and the All American Canal in
1928, some water from the Colorado River was directly transferred to the Imperial
Valley for irrigation. After flowing through agricultural lands, this water entered the
Salton Sea and prevented it from completely evaporating. In 1924 and 1928,


5 Robert H. Boyle, “Life — or Death — for the Salton Sea?” Smithsonian (June 1996): 87-

93. (Hereafter referred to as Boyle, “Life — or Death — for the Salton Sea?”)



President Coolidge executed Public Water Reserve Orders 90 and 114 for the
withdrawal of lands located in and around the Salton Sea. These lands were
designated as a repository for agricultural, subsurface, and surface water drainage.
During this period, dissolved salts in the Colorado River water, combined with
evaporation, led to an increasingly saline Sea and subsequent population reductions
in freshwater fish species.
In 1950, when the salinity of the Sea was roughly equivalent to the ocean, the
California Department of Resources began transferring saltwater fish species to the
Sea. Some species thrived in the Sea, including the orangemouth corvina (Cynoscion
xanthulus) and gulf croaker (Bairdiella icistia).6 During this period, and in the next
two decades, the Sea became a popular destination for sportfishing and tourism.
However, changes to the Sea including the inundation of resort areas and wildlife
habitats, bird and fish die-offs, and health threats of untreated water, among other
things, led to a decline in recreation and development around the Sea in the 1960s.7
Health advisories, for example, included posted warnings against human contact with
the Sea and consuming fish from the Sea.8 The stench of dead fish and concern over
inorganic and organic pollution from the Sea were also factors that led to less interest
in inhabiting the shorelines of the Sea. In the mid-1980s, recreation around the Sea
had dropped nearly 50% since the 1960s.9 In the past few decades the focus of
activities concerning the Sea has been on the environmental problems it faces.
The current Salton Sea ecosystem has problems ranging from poor water quality
to loss of habitat. The New River provides water to the Salton Sea after it flows
through the urban area of Mexicali, Mexico and the Imperial Valley. As the urban
area of Mexicali increased, water pollution from sewage treatment plants, agricultural
runoff, and other sources of pollution has increased. Water inflows to the Sea from
another country illustrate the complexity of efforts to regulate water pollution in the
Sea.10 Elevated levels of selenium and DDE have been detected in Sea fish and
wildlife. Selenium can cause a variety of physical problems in humans and was one
of the reasons for advisories against consuming too much fish from the Sea. DDE,
which is derived from DDT, is also found in waters of the Sea. DDT was banned in
the United States in 1972, but is still used in Mexico as an insecticide. Both DDE
and selenium cause reproductive problems in fish and birds.11


6 Ibid.
7 Cohen et al., Haven or Hazard.
8 Since 1986, advisories against consuming fish in quantities above eight ounces every two
weeks have been posted for the Salton Sea. Currently, it is advised that no one under age
15 should eat fish from the Salton Sea, and that adults should not eat greater than four
ounces of either corvina, tilapia, sargo, or croaker every two weeks.
9 Cohen et al., Haven or Hazard.
10 In 1983, the United States and Mexico signed a border environmental agreement, with the
Environmental Protection Agency as the lead agency for the United States. One product
from this agreement is a $1.2 million proposal to reduce pollution into the New River.
11 Boyle, “Life — or Death — for the Salton Sea?”

Ecology of the Salton Sea
The Salton Sea provides a variety of habitat for fish and wildlife species,
including open water, estuaries, salt marshes, and riparian corridors. Due to the loss
of wetland habitat in southern California and throughout the state’s vast Central
Valley, the Salton Sea is regarded as a primary stopover point for birds on the Pacific
Flyway.12 The Salton Sea is periodically inhabited during the year by the second
largest number of bird species in the United States, including some federal and state
recognized threatened and endangered species.13 In one season, for example, more
than 380 bird species were observed. Surveys have estimated that the total
population of birds in the Salton Sea can reach up to 500,000 birds per month.14 The
Sea also provides habitat for a large fish population, most of which were originally
introduced manually or through drainage ditches leading to the Sea. The most
ubiquitous species in the Salton Sea is the tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus), which
was introduced by farmers to control weeds in their ponds.15
The ecosystem properties of the Salton Sea are largely determined by its water
level, chemical and salt concentration, and balance between the rate of evaporation
and water inflow. Nearly 75% of the water flowing into the Sea comes from
agricultural run-off originating in the Imperial and Coachella Valleys in California,
the other 25% is from rain and other surface inflows.16 The salinity of the Sea has
been increasing over time. Recent studies have reported that about 4 million tons of
salt enter the Sea annually. As water evaporates, the concentration of salt increases.
Presently, the salinity level in the Sea is approximately 44 parts per thousand (ppt),
which is approximately 25% greater than ocean water and one-sixth that of the Great
Salt Lake, Utah (280 ppt). High salinity levels combined with high concentrations
of other toxic substances (e.g., naturally occurring selenium) and disease is thought
to be a factor in the mortality of fish and birds in the Sea.17
Large-scale mortality of fish and birds in and around the Salton Sea received
national attention in the 1990s. In 1992, for example, nearly 150,000 eared grebes
(Podiceps nigricollis) died in the Sea. Some scientists proposed that grebes may


12 Ann Vilesis, Discovering the Unknown Landscape: A History of America’s Wetlands
(Covelo, CA: Island Press, 1997).
13 J.G. Setmire, J.C. Wolfe, and R.K. Stroud, Reconnaissance Investigation of Water
Quality, Bottom Sediment, and Biota Associated with Irrigation Drainage in the Salton Sea
Area, California, 1986-1987, U.S. Geological Survey Water Resources Investigations
Report 89-4102 (Reston, VA: 1990), 68 p.
14 W.D. Shuford, N. Warnock, K.C. Molina, and K.K. Sturm, “The Salton Sea as Critical
Habitat to Migratory and Resident Waterbirds,” Hydrobiologia 473 (2002): 255-274.
15 W.A. Dill and A.J. Cordone, History and Status of Introduced Fishes in California, 1871-

1996, California Dept. of Fish and Game Fisheries Bulletin 178 (Sacramento, CA: 1997),


414 p.


16 Cohen et al., Haven or Hazard.
17 U.S. House of Representatives, Committee on Resources, Subcommittee on Water and
Power, H.R. 5123, The Colorado River Quantification Settlement Facilitation Act, Hearing,

107th Cong., 2nd Sess., July 25, 2002, (Washington, DC: U.S. GPO).



have died from consuming fish with high selenium levels; whereas other scientists
attribute grebe mortality to disease. Definitive answers to these deaths were not
found.18 In 1994, another 20,000 eared grebes died, and in 1996, approximately
20,000 American white pelicans (Pelecanus erythroryhnchos) and brown pelicans
(Pelecanus occidentalis) died in and around the Sea.19 The death of brown pelicans
was especially dramatic since it is a federally listed endangered species (listed in
1970). Indeed, avian mortality was reported to be highest in and around the Sea in
the 1990s compared to other decades. The cause of mortality in these events was
largely attributed to microbes that lead to disease in birds.20 The origin of these
microbes was unclear, although some scientists have attributed them to contaminated
fish that were eaten by birds.
Large fish kills are also reported in the Sea, including the mass mortality of
tilapia and gulf croakers (Bairdiella icistia). Dead fish were thought to have
weakened immunity because of high levels of toxins (e.g., selenium and DDE) and
parasites, and low levels of dissolved oxygen in the Sea.21 Low immunity in fish will
increase their chances of contracting disease and dying. High salinity levels are also
thought to affect fish populations in the Sea. Scientists regard salinity levels of 33 -
37 ppt adequate for ocean living organisms. Beyond salinity levels of 40 ppt, fish
may have limited reproductive success and physiological stress.22
The mortality of bird and fish species in and around the Salton Sea is of concern
because of federal and state listed endangered species that inhabit the Sea. For
example, the brown pelican and Yuma clapper rail (Rallus longirostris yumanensis)
are federally listed endangered species, which reside in and around the Sea during the
year. Other endangered species such as the peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus) and
threatened species such as the bald eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) are occasionally
seen at the Sea as they make their way along the Pacific Flyway. The desert pupfish
(Cyprinodon macularius) is the only endemic fish species in the Salton Basin, and
was listed as an endangered species in 1986.
In 1986, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) issued a Biological Opinion
for the desert pupfish.23 In this Opinion, the FWS stated that both agricultural drain
maintenance activities by the Imperial Irrigation District and the Coachella Valley
Water Authority and the introduction of sterile grass carp would not jeopardize the


18 Cohen et al., Haven or Hazard.
19 Milton Friend, “Avian Disease at the Salton Sea,” Hydrobiologia,473 (2002): 293-306.
20 Ibid.
21 B. Kuperman and V. Matey, Fish Parasites of the Salton Sea, presented at the Science for
Salton Sea Ecosystem Management Conference (Riverside, CA: University of California
January 5, 1999).
22 R. Riedel, L. Caskey, and B.A. Costa-Pierce, “Fish Biology and Fisheries Ecology of the
Salton Sea, California,” Hydrobiologia, 473 (2002): 229-244.
23 U. S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, “Endangered and Threatened
Wildlife and Plants; Determination of Endangered Status and Critical Habitat for the Desert
Pupfish,” Federal Register, vol. 51, no. 61(March 31, 1986):10842.

continued existence of desert pupfish.24 The opinion also allowed for unlimited
incidental take of the species during drain maintenance.25 A subsequent Biological
Opinion for the desert pupfish in 1992, found again that drain maintenance would not
harm the population, yet only a limited incidental take was allowed. It was found
that there was a large number of desert pupfish inhabiting the drains. This opinion
also covered the effects on the Yuma clapper rail and California brown pelican.
Conserving endangered species in the Salton Basin is one of the objectives of
the Salton Sea Authority, which formed in 1993 to remedy problems facing the
Salton Sea. Indeed, some policymakers assert that the presence of endangered
species in the Sea obligates the federal government to restore the Sea and designate
it as a useful water body.
Restoration Activities in the Salton Sea
Some of the ecological problems in the Salton Sea were foreseen by scientists
in the 1960s who noted that salinity in the Sea was increasing at a rate that would
eventually render the Sea inhabitable for fish and wildlife. Early studies that
attempted to create a base of information for restoration activities focused on
understanding the hydrological and saline properties of the Sea. Since then, several
federal, state, and private entities have developed proposals to restore the Sea,
primarily by controlling its salinity and maintaining its water level. (See Appendix
for examples.)
Federal efforts to restore the Salton Sea were amplified with the passage of the
Reclamation Projects Authorization and Adjustment Act of 1992 (Title XI, §1101 of
P.L. 102-575). This act came on the heels of a massive die-off of eared grebes
(approximately 150,000) from January to March 1992 as well as the issuance of a
second Biological Opinion on the desert pupfish that limited incidental take of
species when agricultural drainage areas were maintained. (See appendix for more
information.) The act directs the Secretary of the Interior to conduct research to
develop plans to control salinity levels, provide habitat to endangered species,
enhance fisheries, and protect recreational values in the Salton Sea. Ten million
dollars were authorized in this act for this effort. Seven years later, the authorization
and funding for restoration activities in the Salton Sea expanded with the passage of
the Salton Sea Recovery Act of 1998 (P.L. 105-372). This act authorized the
Secretary of the Interior to conduct feasibility studies and economic analyses of
various options for restoring the Salton Sea. Further, the Secretary was authorized
to conduct studies of wildlife resources and their responses to the hydrology and
toxicology of the Sea. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service was directed to receive $5


24 Agricultural drains in the Imperial Valley are canals that drain irrigated water into the
Alamo and New Rivers, which eventually drain into the Salton Sea.
25 Incidental take occurs when ESA-listed species are harassed, harmed, pursued, hunted,
shot, wounded, killed, trapped, captured, or collected incidentally during activities done
deliberately but for a lawful purpose other than the objective of taking these listed species.
For more information on incidental take, see CRS Report RL31654, The Endangered
Species Act: A Primer, December 4, 2002.

million for conducting these studies. This act also authorized river reclamation
activities for the New and Alamo Rivers (tributaries that flow into the Salton Sea).
To counter environmental changes in the Salton Sea and support restoration and
management activities, the federal government has provided approximately $36.7
million in funding to date.26 The State of California has provided approximately
$10.8 million to date for similar activities and has approved $20 million to fund the
development of a restoration plan. Further, an estimated $300 million from water
transfer fees is expected to be generated for restoration activities in the future. A
summary of the primary federal management and restoration activities in and around
the Salton Sea is presented in the appendix.27 In addition to the listed activities, there
have been several specific studies on various biological and hydrological properties
of the Salton Sea conducted by private interests, university personnel, and state and
federal agencies.
Several restoration projects have been administered through the Salton Sea
Authority. The Salton Sea Authority is a “joint powers” agency chartered by the
State of California to ensure the beneficial uses of the Salton Sea, such as
maintaining the Sea as an agricultural drainage reservoir, restoring the wildlife
resources and habitats around and in the Sea, stimulating recreational use, and
providing an environment for economic development around the Sea.28 This agency
is comprised of Riverside and Imperial counties, the Coachella Valley Water District,
Imperial Irrigation District, and the Torres Martinez Desert Cahuilla Tribe. Federal
and state agencies have representatives on the Authority as ex-officio members.29
The Salton Sea Authority collaborated with the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation (BOR)
to provide a Draft Environmental Impact Report and Environmental Impact
Statement in 2000 that provided five alternatives for restoring the Sea. A final
Environmental Impact Report and Environmental Impact Statement for restoring the
Salton Sea has not been issued by the BOR.
Restoration Alternatives for the Salton Sea
Restoration of the Salton Sea is considered a complex process and restoration
plans proposed so far have been the subject of debate among relevant state and
federal agencies. Options for restoring the Salton Sea were studied by the DOI and
results were presented to Congress in a Draft Environmental Impact


26 For FY2004 $4.0 million was appropriated for desalinization studies, restoration activities
in the New and Alamo Rivers, groundwater assessment in Imperial Valley, and programs
conducted by the Salton Sea Authority.
27 These are primary management and restoration activities; there are several other research
activities done by federal, state, and private interests that may not be listed.
28 A “joint powers” entity is a government entity created under state law that allows two or
more government or public agencies to combine forces by “jointly” exercising their powers
with respect to a specific purpose or set of objectives. These joint powers agencies function
as legally separate government entities with their own governing boards.
29 Salton Sea Authority homepage at [http://www.saltonsea.ca.gov/ssa.htm], accessed
February 24, 2003.

Statement/Environmental Impact Report, a Strategic Science Plan, and a Draft
Alternatives Appraisal Report in 2000.30 In January 2003, the DOI submitted a
Salton Sea Status Report, which presented the latest information on some alternatives
for restoring the Sea, including engineering feasibility and cost estimates.31 Other
plans have been proposed by public and private interests such as the Pacific Institute
(a non-profit organization in California) and the U.S. Filter Corporation (the largest
water company in the United States).
All of the proposed restoration plans include a mechanism for reducing or
stabilizing the salinity level of the Salton Sea. Some plans expect to accomplish this
by creating evaporation ponds and implementing processes that accelerate water
evaporation; other plans propose dividing the Sea into a hypersaline section and a
managed section with low salinity. In most plans, the resulting brine from
evaporation and removal techniques is disposed to locations away from the Sea.
Some plans also propose the construction of a desalinization plant that would treat
water entering the Salton Sea and send it to regional users. The cost of restoring the
Salton Sea according to most of these proposed plans ranges from $1.0 billion to $9.0
billion.32
On April 22, 2004, the Salton Sea Authority endorsed a restoration plan for the
Salton Sea that calls for the construction of a causeway across the center of the Sea.
This would separate the Sea into two basins, an 85,000 acre North Basin that would
reach salinity levels similar to the ocean, and a southern section that would consist
of wetlands areas as well as numerous recreational lakes ranging from fresh water to
hyper saline. The estimated cost of this project is $738 million. This plan is now
under review by the California Department of Water Resources.
Conclusion
Taking water out of the Imperial and Coachella Valleys is expected to reduce
water inflows to the Salton Sea and increase the level of salinity in the Sea over a
relatively short period. Unless the salinity level in the Sea is stabilized or reduced,
its ecosystem will soon be unable to support the current diversity of fish and wildlife.
Some proponents for restoring the Sea base their arguments on the value of the
Salton Sea as one of the few remaining habitats in the region for migratory birds and
other fish and wildlife. With nearly 90% of California’s original wetlands gone, the
Sea, according to scientists, is of regional or national importance to pelicans and
cormorants, wading birds, waterfowl, shorebirds, gulls, and terns.33 Indeed, some
scientists believe that because of the connectivity of the Sea to the migratory patterns
of hundreds of species of birds, the environmental health of the Sea is directly related


30 A final version of these reports has not been submitted yet.
31 U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Bureau of Reclamation, Salton Sea Study: Status Report
(Washington, DC: January, 2003), 44 p. (Hereafter referred to as the Salton Sea Study.)
32 For greater detail of some proposals to restore the Salton Sea, see Salton Sea Study.
33 W.D. Shuford, N. Warnock, K.C. Molina, and K.K. Sturm, “The Salton Sea as Critical
Habitat to Migratory and Resident Waterbirds,” Hydrobiologia 473 (2002), p. 255-274.

to the population health of these birds.34 The value of the Sea can also be measured
in terms of its potential for recreation and economic development (e.g., tourism) as
well as its function for agricultural drainage.
Some opposed to restoring the Salton Sea base their arguments on the premise
that the Salton Sea is destined to evaporate and eventually convert back to a desert
ecosystem. Throughout geological history, water bodies in the Salton Basin have
eventually dried up, leading some scientists to hypothesize that evaporation and
conversion to desert would be the progression of the Salton Sea if no restoration
activities are undertaken. Some critics also argue that salinity levels will increase in
the Sea despite restoration attempts, especially if water inflows to the Sea are reduced
by water transfers or other diversions.35 Further, some argue that the high cost of
restoration and the scientific uncertainty of the restoration proposals do not warrant
the expenditure of federal funds. Some critics of restoration also suggest that if
restoring wetlands for environmental reasons is paramount, then efforts should be
made to use funds to restore naturally occurring wetlands in California instead of in
the Salton Sea. They cite the San Francisco Bay Sacramento/San Joaquin Rivers
Delta Restoration (CALFED) effort as an example of where funds can be allocated
to restore naturally occurring wetlands.
The question of whether or not to restore the Salton Sea is expected to be
addressed in the near future as negotiations continue over water allocation in
southern California. If restoring the Sea becomes a federal or state priority, then
determining how restoration will be funded and what restoration plan will be used
will be issues for Congress.


34 Ibid.
35 According to the BOR, water use in Mexican urban areas on the border may increase if
water quality is improved. This may lower water inflows in the New River and hence
reduce water flowing into the Salton Sea.

Appendix: Chronology of Federal Management and Restoration
Activities in and Around the Salton Sea.
Amount
YearAppropriated (U.S.$, inSourcePurpose
thousands)
10,000Native Americans first occupy the
BCSalton Basin.
700Lake Cahuilla is formed in the Salton
ADSink and proceeds to dry out and fill
up four times.
1500Large inflow of water fills the Salton
(about)Basin from the Gulf of California. It
is 26 times the size of the Salton Sea.
1840 -Flooding from the Colorado River is

1870 recorded in the Salton Sink.


1876U.S. GovernmentU.S. Government establishes the
Torres-Martinez Desert Cahuilla
Indian Reservation with a grant of

640 acres.


1891U.S. Government20,000 acres of land on the northern
side of the Salton Sink are provided
to the Torres-Martinez Band of
Desert Cahuilla Indians.
1901Imperial Canal brings water from the
Colorado River to the Imperial
Valley.
1905The Salton Sea is created in the
Salton Basin by a levee break in the
Colorado River.
1909U.S. GovernmentThe U.S. government reserves in trust
nearly 10,000 acres of land under the
sea for the benefit of the Torres-
Martinez Indians.
1924U.S. GovernmentPresident Calvin Coolidge issues
Public Water Reserve Order 90 and
114 (issued in 1928) setting aside
lands under the Salton Sea as a
permanent drainage reservoir for
agricultural and surface water run-off
from the Imperial and Coachella
Valleys.



Amount
YearAppropriated (U.S.$, inSourcePurpose
thousands)
1928Boulder CanyonAuthorizes the construction of the
Project Act (P.L.Boulder Dam and All American
70-642)Canal (expected to control the
Colorado River and stop flooding).
1930PresidentialSalton Sea Wildlife Refuge is
Proclamationestablished. It covers an area of36

35,000 acres.


1967U.S. Fish andThe yuma clapper rail is listed as an
Wildlife Serviceendangered species in the U.S. Its
range includes the Salton Sea.
1969U.S. DepartmentA Federal-State Reconnaissance
of the InteriorInvestigation studies water quality
(DOI) and theproblems in the Salton Sea. Based on
Resourcethis study, a feasibility study of
Agency ofmanagement plans is authorized in
California (RAC)1972.
1970U.S. Fish andThe brown pelican was listed as an
Wildlife Serviceendangered species. Its range
includes the Salton Sea. (In 1985, the
species was delisted in the East, but it
is still being monitored.)

1974DOI and theFederal-State Feasibility Study,


RACwhich provided alternatives for
lowering the salinity and maintaining
water levels in the Salton Sea, is
completed.
19852,600NationalThe Salton Sea is studied under this
Irrigation Waterprogram to identify the nature and
Quality Program37extent of irrigation-induced water
(NIWQP)quality problems from 1985 to 2003.
Studies were conducted by the BOR,
USFWS, and USGS.


36 Due to flooding, only 2,000 acres remain. See U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Pacific
Region at [http://pacific.fws.gov/salton/saltbgrd.htm], accessed February 13, 2003.
37 This is a cooperative program among the U.S. Geological Survey, U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service, and the Bureau of Reclamation. The effects of chemicals such as selenium, boron,
and DDE were investigated in wildlife in and around the Salton Sea.

Amount
YearAppropriated (U.S.$, inSourcePurpose
thousands)
1986U.S. Fish andThe desert pupfish is listed as a
Wildlife Servicefederally endangered species in its
entire range, which includes the
Salton Sea.
A FWS Biological Opinion states that
both agricultural drain maintenance
activities and the introduction of
sterile grass carp would not
jeopardize the continued existence of
desert pupfish. The Opinion allowed
for unlimited incidental take of the
species during drain maintenance.
1992U.S. Fish andA second Biological Opinion for the
Wildlife Servicedesert pupfish, gave the same
conclusion as the first with respect to
agricultural drainage, but allows for
only a limited take of species during
drain maintenance. This Opinion
also covered the yuma clapper rail
and the brown pelican.
150,000 eared grebes die garnering
national attention for the Salton Sea.
Cause of their deaths is unknown.
Title XI of theAuthorizes research on methods to
Reclamationcontrol salinity levels, provide habitat
Projectsto endangered species, enhance
Authorizationfisheries, and protect recreational
and Adjustmentvalues. Ten million dollars is
Act of 1992 (P.L.authorized for this effort.

102-575)


1993Salton SeaThe Salton Sea Authority is formed
Authorityamong Riverside and Imperial
counties, and the Coachella Valley
Water District and Imperial Irrigation
District. The goal is to coordinate
activities that relate to improving
water quality, stabilizing water
levels, and enhancing economic and
recreational activities in and around
the Salton Sea.
1994 -100 (each year)P.L. 102-575Appropriations for research on the
1996restoration of the Salton Sea are
provided.

1997200P.L. 102-575Same as above.



Amount
YearAppropriated (U.S.$, inSourcePurpose
thousands)

1998400P.L. 102-575Same as above.


900U.S.Funds to implement a Salton Sea
EnvironmentalDatabase Program at the University
Protectionof Redlands, CA.
Agency Office of
Research and
Development
The Salton SeaAuthorizes the Secretary of the
Reclamation ActInterior to complete studies of
of 1998 (P.L.management options to allow the use
105-372)of the Salton Sea to continue, and
stabilize salinity and surface
elevation, as well as maintain fish
and wildlife populations and enhance
the potential for recreation and
economic development.
1,000U.S. Fish andManagement options to mitigate bird
Wildlife Servicedie-offs in and around the Salton Sea
National Wildlife Refuge.
19994,000Title I of P.L.U.S. Environmental Protection
105-372 Agency (USEPA) grants funds to the
Salton Sea Authority to research
water quality and wildlife in and38
around the Salton Sea.
3,000Title II of P.L.Demonstration wetland projects on

105-372,the New and Alamo Rivers.


appropriated
through the
USEPA

2,800USEPA OfficeSalton Sea database program.


of Research and
Development
38 This funding was provided in research grants to various public and private institutions.
The USGS conducted studies on microbial pathogens and causes of the mortality of eared
grebes in the Salton Sea.

Amount
YearAppropriated (U.S.$, inSourcePurpose
thousands)
Water ResourcesAuthorizes Secretary of the Army to
Developmentprovide technical assistance to
Act of 1999federal, state and local agencies to
(WRDA; §529 ofimplement restoration measures in
P.L. 106-53)the Salton Sea, and to determine a
plan in which the U.S. Army Corps
of Engineers could assist others in
restoring the Salton Sea.
1,000U.S. Fish andManagement options to mitigate bird
Wildlife Servicedie-offs in and around the Salton Sea
National Wildlife Refuge.
20001,000P.L. 105-372Salton Sea Research Project through
the Bureau of Reclamation (BOR)
P.L. 105-372The Department of the Interior
submitted a Draft Environmental
Impact Statement/ Environmental
Impact Report, and Strategic Science
Plan for restoring the Salton Sea.
Title VI, §601 ofCompensation to the Torres-Martinez
P.L. 106-568,Desert Cahuila Indians for their
The Torres-submerged land. A total of $14
Martinezmillion was authorized, $10 million
Settlement Act from the federal government and $4
million from water districts.
1,000U.S. Fish andManagement options to mitigate bird
Wildlife Servicedie-offs in and around the Salton Sea
National Wildlife Refuge.

20015,000P.L. 105-372Salton Sea Research Project, BOR.


1,000U.S. Fish andSalton Sea Recovery Program
Wildlife Serviceactivities in the Salton Sea National
Wildlife Refuge.
20024,500P.L. 105-372 andSalton Sea restoration activities and
P.L. 102-575reclamation of the New and Alamo
Rivers, BOR.
1,000U.S. Fish andSalton Sea Recovery Program
Wildlife Serviceactivities in the Salton Sea National
Wildlife Refuge.
2003Bureau ofThe BOR submits the Salton Sea
ReclamationStudy Status Report, which contains
various proposals for the full or
partial restoration of the Salton Sea.



Amount
YearAppropriated (U.S.$, inSourcePurpose
thousands)

2,000ConsolidatedSalton Sea Research Project.


Appropriations
Resolution
FY2003 (P.L.

108-7)


1,000U.S. Fish andSalton Sea Recovery Program
Wildlife Serviceactivities in the Salton Sea National
Wildlife Refuge.
ConsolidatedAmendment to P.L. 105-372 changes
Appropriationsthe authorized appropriations for
Resolutionwater reclamation and irrigation
FY2003 (P.L.drainage in the New and Alamo
108-7)Rivers from $3 million to $10
million.
4,000Energy andAppropriations for desalinization
Waterstudies, restoration activities in the
DevelopmentNew and Alamo Rivers, groundwater
Appropriationsassessment, and programs conducted
for FY2004 (P.L.by the Salton Sea Authority.

108-137)


Total $36,700
Sources: Cohen et al., Haven or Hazard., 63 p; U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Saving the Salton Sea:
A Research Needs Assessment, Proceedings from the Workshop held August 4 - 8, 1997, Palm
Springs, CA; Phone conversation with Clark Newby, Bureau of Reclamation Budget Office, on
February 12, 2003; U.S. House of Representatives, Committee on Resources, Subcommittee on Waterth
and Power, Salton Sea Stabilization and Water Quality Improvement, Oversight Hearing, 105 Cong.,st
1 Sess., (Serial No. 105-60), October 3, 1997 (Washington, DC: U.S. GPO), 112 p.; and various
other sources.