U.S. Trade with Developing Countries: Trends, Prospects, and Policy Implications

U.S. Trade with Developing Countries:
Trends, Prospects, and Policy Implications
March 28, 2007
William H. Cooper
Specialist in International Trade and Finance
Foreign Affairs, Defense, and Trade Division

U.S. Trade with Developing Countries: Trends,
Prospects, and Policy Implications
Summary
Developing countries, a heterogeneous group of low- and middle-income
countries, have become an increasingly significant factor in U.S. trade flows and
trade policy over the last two or more decades. Their influence is reflected in the
issues on the trade agenda of the 110^th Congress: the possible renewal of fast track
trade authority/Trade Promotion Authority; implementing legislation for free trade
agreements; re-authorization of trade adjustment assistance (TAA) for workers and
firms; review and possible re-authorization of Generalized System of Preferences and
other trade preference programs; and oversight of the Doha Development Agenda
(DDA) round negotiations in the WTO.
The growth of developing countries’ economies and foreign trade presents the
United States with opportunities and challenges. The imports from many developing
economies provide U.S. consumers with an ever widening range of choices of
products at lower prices, raising real incomes and contributing to a higher U.S.
standard of living. A number of the developing countries have also become robust
markets for U.S. exports because of rapid economic growth and trade liberalization.
At the same time, many U.S. workers are competing with an expanding pool of
lower-wage labor from India, China, and other developing countries. Such
competition induces U.S.-based firms to reduce costs by using labor-saving
technology, moving production offshore, or shutting down, forcing workers to adjust.
Even workers in the high-end services sector are feeling the pressures of competition
from some developing countries.
Trade with developing countries also raises a set of virtually unique issues
regarding labor rights, environment protection, intellectual property rights, among
others, that have become fixtures on the U.S. trade agenda. At the same time,
developing countries are challenging U.S. policies on trade remedies, high tariffs on
wearing apparel and other import-sensitive products, pricing of medicines, and the
temporary entry of foreign workers.
If current trade trends hold, developing countries can be expected to account
for increasing shares of U.S. exports and imports and for world trade. As a result,
these opportunities and challenges will likely continue, if not expand.
The analysis of U.S. trade trends also exposes a significant divide among groups
of developing countries. Some countries, such as China, South Korea, Mexico and
Chile, have made great strides and, are expanding their role in U.S. and world trade.
Others including most of Africa, many in South Asia, and some in Latin America, lag
behind or are losing shares of U.S. and world trade. These differences suggest that
effective U.S. trade policy may need to differentiate among the various groups of
developing countries. These differences could play a role in how the United States
proceeds on trade preferences, regional and bilateral trade agreements, and
multilateral negotiations in the WTO. This report will be updated as events warrant.

Contents
Developing Countries and Their Role in U.S. and World Trade..............2
Trends in Developing Countries Trade with the United States ..........2
Developing Countries and World Trade............................5
Causes of the Trends...........................................7
U.S. Trade Policy Toward Developing Countries.........................8
U.S. Trade Preference Programs..................................8
The Generalized System of Preferences........................8
The African Growth and Opportunity Act.......................9
The Andean Trade Preference Act............................10
Caribbean Basin Initiative (CBI).............................11
Free Trade Agreements (FTAs)..................................12
World Trade Organization (WTO)...............................13
Issues in U.S. Trade with Developing Countries.........................14
Labor Rights and Wages .......................................14
IPR Protection...............................................16
Access to Affordable Medicines.................................16
Tariffs and Nontariff Barriers...................................17
U.S. Trade Remedy Practices....................................18
Effectiveness of Trade Preference Programs .......................18
Trends and Policy Implications......................................19
List of Tables
Table 1. Share of U.S. Exports and Imports, 1985-2006....................3
Table 2. Share of World Exports and Imports, 1985-2004..................6
Table 3. U.S. Imports from GSP Beneficiary Countries, 2005...............9
Table 4. U.S. Imports from AGOA Beneficiary Countries, 2005............10
Table 5. U.S. Imports from ATPA Countries, 2005......................11
Table 6. U.S. Imports from CBI/CBTPA Beneficiary Countries, 2005.......12

U.S. Trade with Developing Countries:
Trends, Prospects, and Policy Implications
“Developing Countries,” a heterogeneous group of low- and medium-income
economies, are making an increasingly strong impact on U.S. foreign trade and
investment and world trade. This impact is both economic and political and is likely
to increase. Developing countries have been shaping U.S. trade patterns, trade policy
priorities and policies. They are re-shaping the international trading system, asserting
greater influence at bilateral and multilateral trade negotiations, and challenging the
United States and other developed countries to reappraise long-held policies. At the
same time, developing countries’ advancement on the international trade stage has
forced them to confront the challenges of international competition and the
responsibilities that come with membership in the international trade community:
Developed countries are demanding that developing countries jettison economic
policies that protect domestic markets for local producers and workers.
The growing role of some developing countries in U.S. and world trade raises
sensitive policy issues for Members of Congress as they consider legislation to
implement trade agreements, to monitor Administration enforcement of agreements
and of trade laws, and to develop policies. Many of the U.S. free trade agreements
(FTAs) in place or that are under negotiation are with developing countries.
Furthermore, the United States has been engaged with the other 149 members of the
World Trade Organization (WTO) in the Doha Development Agenda (DDA) round
of negotiations. The vast majority of the WTO members are developing countries
who are using the strength of their large numbers to influence the agenda and the
pace of the negotiations. The DDA negotiations are now indefinitely stalled because
of, among other reasons, conflicts between developed and developing countries on
agricultural trade.
Congressional interests and the congressional legislative agenda are filled with
issues pertaining to trade with developing countries. The U.S. Generalized System
of Preferences (GSP) program and other trade preference programs are subject to
periodic reviews and renewals. Some Members of Congress have suggested that the
Congress needs to re-examine the rationale for these programs and their eligibility
criteria in light of the rapid economic advancements that some developing countries
have made. In addition, the Congress has recently considered and passed legislation
implementing FTAs with developing countries and will probably consider a number
of others in the near future. Congressional debate and final action over these
measures will likely be influenced by the perception of the role that developing
countries play in U.S. trade.
The purpose of this report is to assist the Congress in assessing and developing
U.S. foreign trade and economic policies by examining the role that developing

countries are playing in trading with the United States. The report will be updated
as determined by events.
Developing Countries and Their Role in U.S. and
World Trade
The category “developing countries” includes economies representing many
levels of economic development. However, they share one important quality: they
are generally technology receivers rather than technology innovators, and so their
economies still have room to “catch up” with industrialized countries through the
increased application of technology-based production. Some of the developing
countries have been more successful in “catching up” than others, leading to wide
gaps in economic welfare among them. For the purposes of this report, developing
countries include all countries except Australia, New Zealand, Europe, Japan,
Canada, and the United States. The term also excludes the former Soviet republics
and the former communist states in Central and Eastern Europe.¹
Trends in Developing Countries Trade with the United States
Developing countries have accounted for growing shares of U.S. exports and
imports of goods over a 20-year span. Data presented in the table below (Table 1)
illustrate this trend.

¹ Even though many of them would fall under the definition, they are excluded to maintain
analytical consistency over a time period that stretches across the Cold War and post Cold
War periods. In addition, the impact of these countries on international trade and investment
remains minimal at this time.

Table 1. Share of U.S. Exports and Imports, 1985-2006
(percentages)
1985 1995 2000 2006
Country Group
Exp I m p Exp I m p Exp I m p Exp I m p
Developing
Countries of which:32.834.544.544.244.5 49.047.054.7
Asia of which:12.616.423.426.920.3 28.123.732.5
NIEs 7.511.312.711.010.8 9.2 9.4 5.9
ASEAN 3.6 4.3 6.8 8.4 6.07.2 5.5 6.0
China 1.8 1.1 2.0 6.1 2.0 8.2 5.315.5
India 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.8 0.5 0.9 1.0 1.2
Latin America of
which: 14.0 13.6 16.5 14.0 21.8 17.2 21.5 17.9
Mexico 6.2 5.5 7.9 8.414.211.112.910.7
Africa of which: 3.13.5 1.7 2.1 1.4 2.3 1.8 4.4
Sub-Saharan
Africa 1.72.8 0.9 1.7 0.9 1.9 1.2 3.2
LDCs 1.10.8 0.4 0.6 0.4 0.9 0.6 1.3
OPEC 5.05.9 3.3 4.5 2.5 5.5 3.9 7.9
^Source:^{CRS c}^a^l^c^u^l^a^tⁱ^o^{ns usi}^{ng U}^.^S.^D^e^p^a^r^t^m^e^nt^o^f^Co^m^m^e^r^c^e^d^a^t^a^.
From 1985 to 2006, developing countries accounted for an increasing share of
U.S. exports, 32.8% in 1985 versus 47.0% in 2006. Similarly, developing countries
are becoming more significant as sources of U.S. imports. Developing countries
accounted for 34.5% of U.S. imports in 1985 and 54.7% of U.S. imports in 2006.
However, the data clearly show that the trends are not consistent across
developing country sub-groups. For example, Asian developing countries (all Asian
countries except Japan) have accounted for much of the growth. They increased their
share of U.S. exports from 12.6% in 1985 to 23.7% in 2006, and their share of U.S.
imports rose from 16.4% in 1985 to 32.5% in 2006. Until recently, the four so-called
East Asian Newly-Industrialized Economies (NIEs) (Hong Kong, South Korea,
Singapore, and Taiwan) had been an important contributor to this growth, but their
influence is declining. They accounted for 7.5% of U.S. exports and 11.3% of U.S.
imports in 1985, and 9.4 % of U.S. exports and 5.9% of U.S. imports in 2006. The
shares of U.S. trade accounted for by the 10 members of ASEAN were growing in

the 1980s and early 1990s but are also in decline.² Their shares of U.S. exports had
been as high as 6.8% and of imports as high as 8.4% in 1995. They declined to 5.5%
of exports and 6.0% of imports in 2006.
Among East Asian economies and developing economies in general, China has
made by far the most significant impact on U.S. trade during the last twenty years.
It accounted for 1.8% of U.S. exports in 1985 and 5.3% in 2006 for 1.1% of U.S.
imports in 1985 and 15.5% in 2006. The trends suggest that the patterns of U.S.
trade with East Asia are shifting from the East Asian NIEs and ASEAN to China.
India, a huge Asian economy, accounts for only a small part of U.S. trade (0.9%
of U.S. exports and 1.1% of U.S. imports), a level of shares that has not changed
appreciably over the past two decades.
Latin America has also increased in importance, accounting for 14.0% of U.S.
exports in 1985 and 21.5% in 2006, and for 13.6% of U.S. imports in 1985,
increasing to 17.9% in 2006. However, the shift is largely the result of Mexico’s
surge as a U.S. trade partner. In 1985, 6.2% of U.S. exports went to Mexico, a share
that rose to 12.9% in 2006. Similarly, the share of U.S. imports coming from Mexico
increased from 5.5% in 1985 to 10.7% in 2006.
Among the regional groups, the African countries, particularly those of sub-
Saharan Africa, have largely stagnated in importance as U.S. trading partners. In
1985, U.S. exports to sub-Saharan Africa accounted for 1.7% of total U.S. exports
in 1985 and for 1.2% in 2006. In 1985, U.S. imports from the sub-Saharan African
countries increased modestly as a share of total U.S. imports from 2.8% in 1985 to
3.2% in 2006. However, 81% of U.S. imports from Sub-Saharan Africa is oil mostly
from Nigeria and Angola.
The United Nations identifies 50 countries as the poorest countries or “least-
developed countries” (LDCs). This group, many of them located in Africa, have
consistently accounted for very small shares of U.S. trade. In 1985 they accounted
for 1.1% of U.S. exports and 0.8% of U.S. imports, and in 2005 for 0.6% of U.S.
exports and 1.3% of U.S. imports. The members of the Organization of Petroleum
Exporting Countries (OPEC) are another important subcategory of developing
countries. Their shares of U.S. trade have remained fairly constant, with shares of
U.S. imports reaching a high of 7.9% in 2006 but largely dependent on world oil
prices. Their share of U.S. exports declined from 5.0% in 1985 to 3.9% in 2006.
U.S. exports to developing countries are dispersed over a range of product
categories, primarily manufactured goods: electronic products, computers and
components, and autos and parts. For agricultural exporters, developing countries
are a significant market. In 2006, they bought 56% of total U.S. agricultural exports.

² The members of ASEAN (Association of Southeast Asian Nations) are: Brunei,
Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar (Burma), Philippines, Singapore, Thailand,
and Vietnam.

The leading U.S. imports from developing countries are crude oil, electrical
machinery and computers and components.³
The product composition of U.S. trade changes somewhat depending on the
subgroup of developing countries. In 2006, more than 60% of U.S. imports from the
LDCs were oil (more than 70% came from Angola). Other leading U.S. imports
from the LDCs consisted of textiles and apparel, with agricultural products and
natural resources much further behind. In contrast, more than 90% of U.S. imports
from the more advanced newly industrializing economies of East Asia consisted of
more technology-advanced products, such as electrical machinery, other machinery,
and cars.⁴ The trade patterns between the United States and the advanced-developing
countries suggest intra-industry trade and trade where the developing countries are
part of a international production supply chain.
Developing countries have not made the same inroads in terms of U.S. foreign
investment as they have U.S. trade. In 2005 (latest data available), 72% of U.S.
foreign direct investment went to Australia, Canada, Europe, and Japan. The Latin
American countries accounted for 8%, the Middle East for 1%, and Asia for 9%.
Developing countries are even a much less important source of foreign direct
investment in the United States (FDIUS). In 2005, Europe, Canada, Japan, and
Australia accounted for 93% of these investments. The developing countries of Asia
account for 1% and other developing countries and some Carribean islands accounted
for the remainder.⁵
Developing Countries and World Trade
Developing country trends in trade with the United States are mirrored in the
trends of their trade with the world as a whole.

³ Calculations based on U.S. Department of Commerce data.
⁴ Calculations based on data from the U.S. Department of Commerce.
⁵ CRS calculations based on data from the Bureau of Economic Analysis.

Table 2. Share of World Exports and Imports, 1985-2004
(percentages)
1985 1995 2000 2004
Country Group
Exp I m p Exp I m p Exp I m p Exp I m p
Developing
Countries of which:25.423.227.628.831.628.733.530.4
Asia of which:15.615.121.021.423.820.825.823.5
NIEs 5.8 5.3 10.2 10.6 10.3 9.8 9.7 9.0
China 1.4 2.1 2.9 2.5 3.9 3.4 6.4 6.1
ASEAN 3.7 3.3 6.2 6.8 6.7 5.6 6.1 5.4
India 0.5 0.8 0.6 0.7 0.7 0.8 0.8 1.0
Latin America of
which: 4.9 3.3 4.0 4.1 5.1 5.1 4.8 4.0
Mexico 1.4 0.9 1.5 1.5 2.6 2.8 2.1 2.1
Africa of which:4.23.72.22.52.32.02.52.2
Sub-Saharan
Africa 2.6 2.1 1.5 1.6 1.5 1.3 1.6 1.4
LDCs 0.7 1.0 0.5 0.7 0.6 0.7 0.6 0.7
Major Oil
Exporters 8.8 5.9 4.6 3.4 6.3 3.1 6.2 3.5
^Source:^C^R^S^cal^cu^l^a^tⁱ^oⁿ^s^bas^e^{d on}^dat^a^pu^blⁱ^s^h^e^{d by}^U^N^C^T^A^D^.
Table 2 shows that developing countries as a group have been making inroads
in world trade. From 1985 to 2004 (latest data available), they increased their shares
of world exports from 25.4% to 33.5% and their shares of world imports from 23.2%
to 30.4%. However, the data also show that not all groups of developing countries
have experienced the same level of economic integration. The East Asian countries
have been the leaders with the four East Asian NIEs among the primary drivers of
trade growth in the region. Their shares of world exports climbed from 5.8% to 9.7%
(but had been as high as at 10.3% in 2000 before declining), and their shares of world
imports increased as well from 5.3% to 9.0 %, although they had reached as high as
10.6% in 1995. Similarly, the ten ASEAN-member countries have experienced
robust trade growth with their shares of world exports having risen from 3.7% to
6.1%, and their shares of world imports having grown from 3.3% to 5.4%, from 1985
to 2004. However, China’s emergence on the world trade scene has overshadowed
the others with the fastest pace of world trade growth. In 1985, China’s share of
world exports and imports stood at 1.4% and 2.1%, respectively, and 6.4% and 6.1%,
respectively, in 2004.

Other categories of developing countries have exhibited less robust trade
growth. Other Asian countries have not faired as well as the East Asian countries.
For example, India’s shares of world exports and imports have remained virtually
unchanged during the period, according to the data in Table 2. The shares of world
trade of the Latin American countries as a group have also remained virtually
stagnant during the period, although Mexico’s shares have grown modestly. The
African countries, particularly the sub-Saharan African countries, have fared the
worst of all as a group. Their rate of participation in world trade has been low and
has been declining. In 1985, the sub-Saharan African shares of world exports and
imports stood at 2.6% and 2.1%, respectively, but at 1.6% and 1.4% in 2004.
Causes of the Trends
Specialists and other observers have cited a range of reasons for the disparity in
the rates of developing countries’ participation in trade. The most successful
developing countries have adopted policies of economic integration with the rest of
the world with an emphasis on export-led growth. The East Asian countries are the
most vivid example. The four East Asian NIEs are largely credited with launching
these efforts in the 1970s,which resulted in their economies taking off in the 1980s
and continuing to grow in the 1990s, albeit with some bumps along the way. Other
East Asian countries have followed; for example, Thailand and Malaysia. China is
the most recent and largest example of an economy that has moved to become more
integrated in the world economy. Such cases are not confined to East Asia. Chile
and Mexico have emerged as a successful export-oriented economies. India has also
recently undertaken economic reforms to become more integrated with the rest of the
world. Among the less successful developing countries are ones that have followed
import substitution economic development strategies of discouraging imports by
imposing high tariffs and other trade barriers, and trying to develop domestic
production of all goods. These policies have proved to be highly costly and have⁶
inhibited economic growth.
Analysts have also concluded that the most successful developing economies
are those that have built successful manufacturing sectors, while a number of the less
successful countries are highly dependent on the production of primary goods such
as food, agricultural products, and natural resources. The 50 LDCs are dependent on
average on just three primary commodities for 70% of their total exports. Some
LDCs are dependent on a single commodity for their exports. This is a matter of
concern because commodity markets tend to be very volatile. In addition,
commodities account for decreasing shares of world trade, making it more difficult⁷
for commodity-dependent countries to gain a foothold in world trade.

⁶ Spero, Joan Edelman and Jeffrey A. Hart. The Politics of International Economic
Relations. St. Martin’s Press. New York. 1996. p. 231-234.
⁷ An OECD study points out that primary commodities such as food and raw materials are
income inelastic, that is, as national incomes rise, a country’s population spends a declining
share of its income on them. In addition, raw materials account for a declining share of
production. OECD. The Development Dimensions of Trade. Paris. 2001. p. 134.

Furthermore, many of the least developed countries do not have the sufficient
infrastructure — customs offices and procedures, transportation facilities,
communications infrastructure — to conduct large amounts of trade. The adjustment
costs from trade liberalization might also be too great for smaller, less diversified
economies. Some developed countries have responded with trade-capacity building
assistance as part of efforts to promote trade liberalization and economic growth in
these countries.⁸
U.S. Trade Policy Toward Developing Countries
U.S. trade policy toward developing countries is evolving. For many years, the
policy largely consisted of trade preference programs extended conditionally and
unilaterally to various groups of developing countries. While those programs are still
in place, U.S. trade policy is clearly shifting with successive presidential
administrations. The Bush Administration especially has negotiated bilateral and
regional reciprocal trade agreements with a decided emphasis on trade with
developing countries. Observers have also pointed out that U.S. trade policy toward
developing countries is ambiguous — on the one hand encouraging trade
liberalization through trade preference programs and free trade agreements, while on
the other hand applying high import tariffs on products in which developing countries
are more likely to have a comparative advantage: labor-intensive goods and semi-
finished goods that contain raw materials.
U.S. Trade Preference Programs
U.S. trade preference programs have been important vehicles for U.S. trade
policy toward developing countries. These programs also reflect the ambiguity of
U.S. policy.
The Generalized System of Preferences. The broadest and oldest
program is the Generalized Systems of Preferences (GSP). The U.S. GSP program
was first enacted on January 1, 1976, as part of an effort to encourage economic
growth in developing countries by extending preferences in the form of low or no
tariffs on the imports from certain developing countries. The program was partially
in response to developing countries’ criticism that high tariffs on their products
prevented their producers from competing on world markets. Originally considered
a temporary, 10-year program, U.S. GSP has been renewed on eight occasions, most
recently through December 31, 2008, in section 8802 of P.L. 109-432. While
covering a broad spectrum of products of developing countries, the statutory
authority for the GSP program requires country-beneficiaries to adhere to a number
of criteria, among them protection of specified labor rights and protection of
intellectual property rights. In addition, the statute provides for the “graduation” of
countries that exceed a per capita income level and the graduation of products that
exceed competitive-need limits. Also, certain import-sensitive goods are excluded

⁸ For more analysis of the trade capacity building program, see CRS Report RL33628,
Trade Capacity Building: Foreign Assistance for Trade and Development, Danielle
Langton.

from coverage, including some watches, footwear, glass products, and electronic
products.⁹
Some critics of the program have charged that the exclusions limit the
program’s effectiveness by disqualifying labor-intensive products which make up the
a major part of the production profile of beneficiary countries. As evidence, they
point out that only a small portion of imports from beneficiary countries enters the
United States under GSP.
In 2005, for example, only 9.6% of U.S. imports from GSP-eligible countries
entered the United States under the GSP program.¹⁰ (See Table 3 below.) Another
criticism of the U.S. GSP program has been that only a few countries have been able
to take advantage of its benefits. In 2005, 83.9% of GSP-covered imports were from
only 10 countries.¹¹
It is also important to note that GSP has automatic competitive need limits
(CNL) for beneficiary developing countries (BDCs) (but not for least-developed
BDCs), or a level above which the preference is no longer extended, absent a CNL
waiver, while the other preference programs have no such limits. This is an important
distinction between it and the other preference programs, and is, perhaps, one of the
reasons that the percentage of total trade entering under GSP (although the broadest
program) has remained relatively static and that the preference may be used less than
the others.
Table 3. U.S. Imports from GSP Beneficiary Countries, 2005
(Millions of Dollars)
1. Total Imports278,029
2. MFN Duty Free109,317
3. Imports Under GSP26,747

4. GSP Share of Total Imports 9.6%

^Source:^C^R^S^cal^cu^l^a^tⁱ^ons^b^a^{sed on}^U^.^S^.^D^e^part^m^eⁿ^t^of
^Co^m^m^e^r^{ce d}^a^{ta co}^m^p^iled^b^y^th^{e Un}^ited^Stat^e^s^Iⁿ^terⁿ^atioⁿ^a^l
^T^r^{ade C}^o^m^mⁱ^s^sⁱ^on^.
The African Growth and Opportunity Act. The United States provides
more extensive tariff preferences to targeted groups of developing countries under
three regional preference programs. The African Growth and Opportunity Act (Title
I of the Trade and Development Act of 2000 — P.L. 106-200) provides tariff

⁹ For more information on the U.S. GSP program, see CRS Report RL33663, Generalized
System of Preferences: Background and Renewal Debate, by Vivian C. Jones.
¹⁰ However, if measured against dutiable imports, that is, imports that would not otherwise
enter duty free under most-favored-nation (MFN) or normal trade relations (NTR) tariff
rates, GSP covered imports accounted for 15.9% of total imports from GSP-beneficiary
countries.
¹¹ CRS calculations based on Commerce Department data from USITC database.

preferences for the imports from 38 (as of 2007) eligible sub-Saharan African
countries in addition to those provided under GSP. Congress has amended the
program three times since it originally went into effect on October 1, 2000: in 2002
to clarify coverage of some textile and apparel products; in 2004 to expand the
benefits of the program and to extend the its effective period to 2015; and in 2006,
to extend some textile and apparel provisions to 2012 that would have expired in
2007. In 2005, $32.7 billion in imports entered the United States under the AGOA
program — 69.6% of total U.S. imports from those countries. ¹² However, imports
from Nigeria accounted for $22.5 billion or 68.8% of the total imports under AGOA,
and most of the imports from Nigeria consisted of petroleum and petroleum products.
In addition, $5.4 billion in imports from the AGOA beneficiary countries entered the
United States under the GSP program (see Table 4).¹³
Table 4. U.S. Imports from AGOA Beneficiary Countries, 2005
(Millions of Dollars)
1. Total Imports$47,003
2. MFN Duty Free8,122
3. Imports Under GSP5,403
4. Imports Under AGOA32,743

5. AGOA’s Share of Total Imports69.7%

^Source:^C^R^S^cal^c^u^l^a^tⁱ^oⁿ^s^bas^e^{d on}^U^.^S^.^D^e^part^m^eⁿ^t^of
^Co^m^m^e^r^{ce d}^a^t^a^co^m^p^iled^b^y^th^{e Un}^ited^{States I}ⁿ^terⁿ^atioⁿ^a^l
^T^r^{ade C}^o^m^mⁱ^s^sⁱ^on^.
The Andean Trade Preference Act. The Andean Trade Preference Act
(ATPA) which went into effect on December 4, 1991, provided preferential tariff
treatment to certain imports from Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru. The
preferences were part of a U.S. effort to encourage these developing countries to
diversify their economies away from illegal drug production. The original program
expired on December 4, 2001, but was reauthorized retroactively under the Andean
Trade Promotion and Drug Eradication Act (ATPDEA) (Title XXXI of the Trade Act
of 2002, P.L. 107-210). Under P.L. 109-432, its current authorization expires on¹⁴
June 30, 2007. In 2005, 57.1% of imports from ATPA beneficiary countries
entered the United States under the program (see Table 5).

¹² This turns out to be of the dutiable imports from those countries.
¹³ CRS calculations based on data collected by the U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau
of the Census.
¹⁴ For more information about the Andean trade preference programs, see CRS Report
RL30790, The Andean Trade Preference Act: Background and Issues for Reauthorization,
by J.F. Hornbeck.

Table 5. U.S. Imports from ATPA Countries, 2005
(Millions of Dollars)
1. Total Imports$20,060
2. MFN Duty Free6,604
3. Imports Under GSP 448
4. Imports Under ATPA11,464

5. ATPA’s Share of Total Imports57.1%

^Source:^CRS^c^a^l^c^u^l^atⁱ^oⁿ^s^bas^e^{d on}^U^.^S^.^D^e^part^m^eⁿ^t^of
^Co^m^m^e^r^{ce d}^a^{ta co}^m^p^iled^b^y^t^h^e^Un^ited^{States I}ⁿ^terⁿ^atioⁿ^a^l
^T^r^{ade C}^o^m^mⁱ^s^sⁱ^on^.
Caribbean Basin Initiative (CBI).Under the Caribbean Basin Economic
Recovery Act (CBERA) also knows as the Caribbean Basin Initiative (CBI), the
United States extends tariff preferences that go beyond preferences under GSP to
certain imports from 24 eligible countries in the Caribbean region. The original
program went into effect on January 1, 1984, and was due to expire on September 30,
1995. It was revised and made permanent under the Caribbean Basin Economic
Recovery Act of 1990 (P.L.101-382). Furthermore, the Congress enacted the
Caribbean Basin Trade Partnership Act (CBTPA) on May 18, 2000 (P.L. 106-200)
to respond to the devastation wrought by Hurricanes Georges and Mitch in 1998.
The CBTPA provides for more trade preferences on a more extensive range of
imports from the region including textiles and apparel but is scheduled to end on
September 30, 2008, or on the date that the Free Trade Area of the Americas
agreement is completed, whichever is earlier. Table 6 below provides data on the
impact of the CBI and CBTPA programs in U.S. trade in 2005. The data indicate that
the CBTPA has added substantially to the tariff preferences for U.S. trading partners
in the region. The significance of CBI/CBTPA will diminish as the DR-CAFTA (see
discussion below) is implemented since the larger CBI beneficiaries are participants
in that arrangement.

Table 6. U.S. Imports from CBI/CBTPA Beneficiary Countries,
2005
(Millions of Dollars)
1. Total Imports$31,814
2. Imports MFN Duty Free 11,648
3. Imports Under GSP 465
4. Imports Under CBI3,564
5. Imports Under CBTPA +CBI12,337

6. CBTPA/CBI Share of Total Imports 38.7%

^So^urce^:^C^R^S^cal^cu^l^a^tⁱ^oⁿ^s^bas^e^{d on}^U^.^S^.^D^e^part^m^eⁿ^t^of
^Co^m^m^e^r^{ce d}^a^{ta co}^m^p^iled^b^y^th^{e Un}^ited^{States I}ⁿ^t^e^rⁿ^atioⁿ^a^l
^T^r^{ade C}^o^m^mⁱ^s^sⁱ^on^.
Free Trade Agreements (FTAs)
The United States entered into its first bilateral free trade agreement (FTA) in
1985 with Israel and into its largest FTA in 1994 with Canada and Mexico — the
North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). While the United States launched
FTA negotiations with three countries during the Clinton Administration — Jordan,
Chile, and Singapore — U.S. interest in FTAs has surged under the Bush¹⁵
Administration as part of its “competition in liberalization” trade strategy. In
addition, agreements have been signed (but not entered into force) with Oman,
Colombia, and Peru. Negotiations with Panama have been completed, but an
agreement has not yet been signed. Negotiations are underway with South Korea and
Malaysia. They were launched with members of the South African Customs Union
(SACU), Thailand, Ecuador, and the United Arab Emirates (UAE) but are now
dormant. Of the seven FTAs that have entered into force since 2001, only one
agreement has been with a non-developing country (Australia).
In terms of trade with developing countries, the emphasis on FTAs signifies a
decided shift in U.S. policy and strategy from unilateral trade preferences to
reciprocal agreements. For developing countries, FTAs provide the opportunity to
negotiate for greater access to U.S. markets and provide a forum to raise concerns
about U.S. trade policy and practices; for example, anti-dumping practices.
Similarly, the United States has been seeking increased market access in developing
countries, reduced barriers to foreign investment, especially in financial services and

¹⁵ Along with Australia (2005), the United States and entered into bilateral FTAs with
Jordan (2001), Singapore, (2004), Chile (2004), Morocco (2006), and Bahrain (2006). It has
also signed the DR-CAFTA with the Dominican Republic and five Central American
countries. To date the agreements with El Salvador (2006), Honduras (2006), Nicaragua
(2006) and Guatemala (2006) have gone into effect while the implementation of agreements
with Costa Rica and the Dominican Republic are pending.

professional services, and greater protection of intellectual property rights (IPR).
Both the United States and its trade agreement partners have used the FTAs also to
achieve non-commercial foreign policy objectives, such as solidifying alliances.
FTAs are reciprocal agreements, meaning that the partners negotiate on an equal
basis, at least ostensibly. Consequently, while the United States has demanded that
developing trade countries improve IPR protection as a condition for preferential
treatment in its market, some developing country partners have demanded increased
access for textiles and apparel or other markets deemed sensitive by U.S.
policymakers as a condition for preferential treatment for U.S. exporters. Critics
have argued that the United States needs to shift the emphasis of FTAs from
developing countries to larger trade partners, such as Japan and the EU, where the
benefits of FTAs might be greater.
The United States also employs bilateral and regional trade and investment
framework agreements (TIFAs) with a number of developing countries. Under a
TIFA, the participating countries agree to establish a council as a forum to discuss
ways to facilitate mutual trade and investment. In some cases, a TIFA is considered
a step toward launching FTA negotiations.
World Trade Organization (WTO)
The United States has promoted developing countries’ membership and
participation in the WTO. Along with increasing trade flows, many developing
countries have been exerting stronger political influence in the WTO. Of the 150
WTO members, 107, or 71%, are developing countries. Because of WTO rules of
procedures, the developing countries are able to exert institutionally a
disproportionally larger degree of influence in the WTO than their participation in
world trade flows might dictate. The WTO makes decisions by consensus, which
means that any one member-country can block a decision. Developing countries’
participation in the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT)/WTO has
evolved over time. Up until the 1990s, most developing countries did not consider
GATT to be an institution that would be sympathetic to their economic concerns, and
they largely worked through U.N. organizations.¹⁶ For that matter, the highly
protectionist trade policies that many developing countries were following would not
have been congruent with GATT principles and rules fostering trade liberalization.
Developing countries increased their activity most noticeably during the
Uruguay Round (1986-1994) as they began to put their imprint on agreements that
emerged from the round, including the establishment of the WTO. This trend
matched the economic restructuring that many developing countries were
undertaking to integrate their economies with the rest of the world and that is
reflected in their growing shares of world and U.S. trade.
The developing countries’ voice in the WTO has never been stronger than in the
Doha Development Agenda round and in events leading up to the launch of that

¹⁶ Michalopoulos, Constantine. Developing Countries in the WTO. Palgrave. New York.

2001. pp. 2, 152-153.

round. In late 1999, the WTO trade ministers had gathered in Seattle for the third
WTO Ministerial and their main agenda item was to reach agreement on the
launching of a new round of WTO negotiations. However, the large group of
developing countries, themselves rather diverse and promoting different agendas, had
nevertheless united against the scope and content of a proposed new round. The
Seattle meeting collapsed, and some experts assert the concerns of the developing
countries not being addressed was an important factor in that failed meeting.
Developing countries were especially concerned that the mechanism for establishing
the agenda for the round did not allow them a sufficient opportunity to promote
issues of interest to them.¹⁷
The negotiations were eventually launched at the fourth ministerial in November
2001 in Doha, Qatar, as the Doha Development Agenda (italics added) round, to
reflect the intention of the WTO members to focus on the concerns of developing
countries. The negotiations moved very slowly. At the fifth ministerial in Cancun,
they came to a standstill when the members could not agree on how to proceed.
Among the major participants was the G-20 group of developing countries, led by
Brazil and India. At Cancun and since that meeting, the G-20 has emerged as a major
force, on par with the United States and the EU in setting the agenda and pace of the
negotiations.¹⁸ One of the problems of WTO participation for many developing
countries is that it is costly to initiate and carry through with disputes in the WTO.
Issues in U.S. Trade with Developing Countries
The emergence of developing countries as an important factor in U.S. trade has
generated a range of policy issues that, while not unique to developing countries,
arise more often in U.S. trade with them. The issues described below do not
constitute an exhaustive list but, nevertheless, represent the most prevalent issues that
have emerged in U.S. bilateral and multilateral negotiations with developing
countries. Some of the issues are developing country challenges to the United States;
that is, changes to U.S. laws and practices. Others are U.S. challenges to developing
countries. The issues generally cut across U.S. trade relations with most developing
countries at all levels of economic development.
Labor Rights and Wages
Perhaps no issue has dominated debate on U.S. trade policy over the past decade
more than the role of trade liberalization in employment and wages. The issue results
from the increased role of U.S. trade with lower-wage developing countries and the
concern that U.S. workers are forced to compete in a “race to the bottom” as U.S.
companies are induced to close down or to reduce the wages of or lay off workers

¹⁷ Ibid. p. 3.
¹⁸ Bhagwati, Jaddish. “From Seattle to Hong Kong.” Foreign Affairs, Special Edition:
Freer Trade?, 2005. The G-20 consists of Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, China, Colombia, Costa
Rica, Cuba, Ecuador, Egypt, El Salvador, Guatemala, India, Mexico, Nigeria, Pakistan,
Paraguay, Peru, Philippines, South Africa, Thailand, and Venezuela.

and move production facilities to lower-wage countries. Labor and trade as an issue
has gained more attention recently as economic studies have focused on the growing
income gap in the United States; that is, even though the U.S. economy continues to
grow robustly, more of the rewards from that growth are going to more highly-paid
workers, to higher-income households, and to multinational corporations. Many
economists attribute the growing gap to advances in technology that improve labor
productivity and increase demand for high-skilled labor, while diminishing demand
for low-skilled labor. They also attribute a modest role to trade liberalization and
globalization.¹⁹ Other economists attribute a larger role to increased trade with low-
wage labor countries and the emergence of large pools of low-wage labor in China
and India that cause a compression of wages in developed countries, including the
United States. One study shows that over the past twenty years, income inequality
in the United States has been rising suggesting a correlation with the rise in trade
with developing countries. In addition, they point to more intra-industry trade
between the United States and developing countries where U.S. companies shift
production to countries with lower wage labor.²⁰
Trade policy responses and proposals in the United States have varied. For
example, some observers argue that trade plays a limited role, if at all, in employment
and wages, and therefore, no trade policy response is required. Others have
suggested that the government should provide a safety net to workers who lose their
jobs or experience a decrease in wages because of trade. This safety net might be in
the form of an enhanced trade adjustment assistance (TAA) program or wage
insurance. Others have proposed that the United States needs to boost the level of
education to better prepare U.S. workers to compete in the global economy.
Some Members of Congress have argued that lower wages persist in developing
countries in part because of the lack of labor rights protection and have called for
enforceable internationally-accepted labor standards to be part of U.S. trade
agreements with the governments of developing countries. Developing countries, on
the other hand, consider demands for labor rights provisions in trade agreements as
a form of protectionism. They argue that their workers’ wages are lower because
their economies have an abundance of unskilled labor and that low wages reflect the
lower level of economic development. This issue will likely be part of the expected
debate over the renewal of the trade promotion authority/fast track procedures during
the 110^th Congress and debate over implementing bills for FTAs.²¹

¹⁹ See for example, The Federal Reserve Board. Remarks by Chairman Ben. S. Bernanke
Before the Greater Omaha Chamber of Commerce, Omaha, Nebraska. February 6, 2007.
[ h t t p : / / www.f e de r a l r e s e r ve .gov] .
²⁰ See for example, Roach, Stephen S. Special Economic Study: The Politicization of the
U.S.-China Trade Relationship. February 13, 2007. pp. 7-9.
²¹ For more discussion on TPA/fast track and labor rights issues, see CRS Report RL33743,
Trade Promotion Authority (TPA): Issues, Options, and Prospects for Renewal, by J. F.
Hornbeck and William H. Cooper, and CRS Report RL33864, Traded Promotion Authority
(TPA) Renewal: Core Labor Standards Issues, by Mary Jane Bolle.

IPR Protection
Congress and the Administration have made foreign government protection of
the rights of U.S. holders of copyrights, trademarks, and patents a priority in trade
negotiations and trade agreements, including FTAs. While not exclusively an issue
with developing countries, the problem primarily occurs with those countries because
they have not developed a sufficient body of laws or do not adequately enforce the
laws they do have. U.S. producers of IP products argue that they not only lose
revenues because of the sale of pirated products but also lose control over the quality
of the product that bears their brand name or trademark. Developing countries argue
that they do not have the infrastructure to combat piracy, and that legally produced
goods would be prohibitively expensive for their residents to produce or sell.
Each year the Office of the United States Trade Representative issues a Special
301 report that identifies trading partners that fail to protect U.S.-origin IPR.²² Of the
13 countries that the USTR placed on its “priority watch list,” 11 were developing
countries, and the other two were former Soviet states.²³
Access to Affordable Medicines
For many developing countries, especially the LDCs, access to affordable
medicines to combat infectious diseases — HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis, malaria, and
others — has been a major issue in their trade relations with the United States and
other developed countries. They claim that the prices demanded by pharmaceutical
companies are beyond the means of those in need. The pharmaceutical companies
respond that the high costs are required for the companies to recoup the research and
development costs they have incurred. Some pharmaceutical companies have made
their drugs available to developing countries that face health emergencies but have
done so largely on an ad hoc basis.
In December 2005, WTO members adopted, as an amendment to the Trade-
Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) agreement, a provision
allowing the use of compulsory licenses for the production of generic
pharmaceuticals for certain infectious diseases where the developing country lacks
the domestic capacity to manufacture those medicines. In essence, it allows a
developing country facing a health crisis to issue a compulsory license for the
production of a generic drug in a third country that has the production capacity and
then to import that medicine. The provision allows for compensation for the patent
holder and restricts the use of the medicine for domestic use and for a limited period
of time. However, for various reasons use of the system of compulsory licenses has

²² Special 301 refers to a statutory requirement under section 182 of the Trade Act of 1974,
as amended, that the USTR annually identify those countries that are the egregious offenders
of denying IPR protection and against which the United States could take action. In
practice, the USTR has also identified countries which do not fit the category of most
egregious offenders but bare serious monitoring on its annual “priority watch list”; and those
that require less serious watching,
²³ The 13 countries were China, Russia, Argentina, Belize, Brazil, Egypt, India, Indonesia,
Israel, Lebanon, Turkey, Ukraine, and Venezuela.

been modest and developing countries have complained that developed countries are
not putting the procedures in place for it to be used.²⁴
Tariffs and Nontariff Barriers
Developing countries raise the issue of high U.S. tariff and non-tariff barriers
on products in which they have a comparative advantage, for example, textiles and
apparel and certain agricultural products. They claim that these barriers limit their
ability to export to the U.S. market. Particularly, developing countries cite high
tariffs on textiles and apparel. One study points out that 62.7% of the value of
apparel imports from developing countries face “peak” U.S. tariffs (tariffs of 10% or
greater). Wearing apparel production is largely labor-intensive and therefore
advantageous for many developing countries with an abundance of low-wage labor
to produce and export.²⁵ Developing countries have raised this issue during bilateral
negotiations on free trade agreements.²⁶
Developing countries frequently complain about high U.S. tariffs, non-tariff
barriers, and subsidies on some agricultural products. U.S. quotas and high out-of-
quota tariffs on sugar have been an issue in U.S. FTA negotiations with sugar-
producing developing countries.²⁷ One study has estimated that tariffs, quotas, and
subsidies provide U.S. agricultural producers with the protection equivalent to an
average tariff of 19.9%. The study also notes that the United States is by no means
the most protectionist in this category, as the tariff equivalents for other
industrialized countries, are much higher: Canada 52.3%; European Union 46.4%;
and Japan 82.1%.²⁸
At the same time, the United States asserts that developing countries maintain
high tariffs and non-tariff barriers on some agricultural products and manufactured
goods and barriers to trade in services, such as banking, insurance, and professional
services. The United States has pressed the developing countries to reduce these
barriers that could offer expanded markets for U.S. exporters but also improve the
efficiency of developing economies.

²⁴ For more information, see CRS Report RL33750, The WTO, Intellectual Property Rights,
and the Access to Medicines Controversy, by Ian F. Fergusson.
²⁵ Cline, William R. Trade Policy and Global Poverty. Center for Global Development and
the Institute for International Economics. June 2004. pp. 112-113.
²⁶ See, for example, the U.S. negotiations with South Korea. CRS Report RL33435, The
Proposed South Korea-U.S. Free Trade Agreement (KORUS FTA), William H. Cooper and
Mark E. Manyin.
²⁷ See, for example, the negotiations and agreement on CAFTA. CRS Report RL31870, The
Dominican Republic-Central America-United States Free Trade Agreement (DR-CAFTA),
by J. F. Hornbeck.
²⁸ Cline, op.cit. p. 123.

U.S. Trade Remedy Practices
Many developing countries complain that antidumping actions that the United
States and other developed countries initiate against their products are protectionist
and unduly affect them. A number of developing countries are part of an informal
group in the WTO called “Friends of Antidumping.” In the Doha Development
Agenda round, they have proposed that developed countries extend “special and
differential treatment” to developing countries when initiating antidumping actions
against their products, such as raising the de minimis threshold for AD action, that
is the level of dumping below which no action is to be taken.²⁹ Developing countries
have also raised the issue with the United States as part of FTA negotiations, pressing
for special treatment under the FTAs. South Korea has been doing so.
Congress has gone on record opposing any agreement that weakens antidumping
laws or any other U.S. trade remedy statute. This position is contained in a statute
authorizing trade promotion authority/fast track as a principal negotiating objective:
... to preserve the ability of the United States to enforce rigorously its trade laws,
including the antidumping, countervailing duty, and safeguard laws, and avoid
agreements that lessen the effectiveness of domestic and international disciplines³⁰
on unfair trade ...
A rather strong bipartisan consensus in Congress supports this principle. The
Bush Administration allowed the possibility of changes in trade remedy laws to be
put on the table in the Doha Development Agenda, arguing that doing so was
necessary in order to get developing countries to launch the negotiations. Many
Members of Congress have criticized this step.
Effectiveness of Trade Preference Programs
Many developing countries argue that while trade preference programs, such as
GSP, are well-meaning on the surface, in practice they do not provide much benefit
because of exceptions made for import-sensitive products. These products tend to
be ones in which developing countries have or could have a comparative advantage.
For example, U.S. law prohibits GSP coverage for certain textile and apparel,
watches, import-sensitive electronic products, import sensitive steel articles,
footwear, leather apparel, and import-sensitive manufactured glass products.
Developing countries also argue that benefits of tariff preference programs are
eroding because the United States and other developed countries have been entering
into free trade agreements that eliminate tariffs among FTA partners. In addition,
various rounds of multilateral negotiations under the GATT and WTO have lowered
tariffs for all members and thus have been eroding the effectiveness of trade
preference programs for developing countries.

²⁹ For more information on the antidumping issue in the WTO, see CRS Report RL32810,
WTO: Antidumping Issues in the Doha Development Agenda, by Vivian C. Jones.
³⁰ Trade Act of 2002, Section 2102(b)(14).

Trends and Policy Implications
Developing countries have become an increasingly significant factor in U.S.
trade over the last two or more decades, and this influence is reflected in the issues
on the trade agenda of the 110^th Congress: the possible renewal of trade promotion
authority (TPA) (or fast track trade authority); implementing legislation for FTAs;
reauthorization of trade adjustment assistance (TAA) for workers and firms; review
and possible re-authorization of GSP and other trade preference programs; oversight
of the Doha Development Agenda (DDA) round negotiations in the WTO; and other
issues.
The growth of developing countries’ foreign trade presents the United States
with opportunities and challenges. The imports from many developing economies
provide U.S. consumers with an ever widening range of choices of products at lower
prices, raising real incomes and contributing to a higher U.S. standard of living. A
number of the developing countries have also become robust markets for U.S.
exports.
At the same time, U.S. workers are competing with a growing pool of lower-
wage labor from India, China, and other developing countries. Some U.S.-based
firms are induced to use labor-saving technology, to move production offshore, or to
shut down their operations completely. Even workers in the services sector, such as
computer programmers, are feeling the pressures of competition from some
developing countries. Many economists argue, however, that in the long run that
trade affects the composition of jobs but not employment levels.
Trade with developing countries also raises a set of virtually unique issues
regarding labor rights, environment protection, and intellectual property rights,
among others, that have become fixtures on the U.S. trade agenda. At the same time,
developing countries are challenging U.S. trade policies on trade remedies, high
tariffs on wearing apparel and other import-sensitive products, pricing of medicines,
and the temporary entry of foreign workers, among other issues.
If current trade trends hold, developing countries can be expected to account
for increasing shares of U.S. exports and imports and of world trade. As a result,
these opportunities and challenges will likely continue, if not expand.
The analysis of U.S. trade trends also exposes a significant divide among groups
of developing countries. Some countries, such as those in East Asia, Mexico, and
Chile, have made great strides, and are expanding their role in U.S. and world trade.
Others including most of Africa, many countries in South Asia, and some in Latin
America, lag behind or are losing shares of U.S. and world trade. These differences
suggest that an effective U.S. trade policy needs to differentiate among the various
groups of developing countries. These differences could play a role in how the
United States proceeds on trade preferences, regional and bilateral trade agreements,
and multilateral negotiations in the WTO.