The Islamic Traditions of Wahhabism and Salafiyya
The Islamic Traditions of
Wahhabism and Salafiyya
Christopher M. Blanchard
Analyst in Middle Eastern Affairs
Foreign Affairs, Defense, and Trade Division
Summary
The terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, and subsequent discussions of
religious extremism have called attention to Islamic puritanical movements known as
Wahhabism and Salafiyya. Al Qaeda leaders and their ideological supporters have
advocated a violent message that some suggest is rooted in these conservative Islamic
traditions. Other observers have accused Saudi Arabia, the birthplace of Wahhabism,
of having disseminated religious ideology that promotes hatred and violence, targeting
the United States and its allies. Saudi officials strenuously deny these allegations. This
report provides a background on these traditions and their relationship to active terrorist
groups; it also summarizes recent charges and responses, including the findings of theth
final report of the 9/11 Commission and relevant legislation in the 110 Congress. The
report will be updated to reflect major developments. Related CRS products include
CRS Report RL33533, CRS Report RL32499, CRS Report RS21432, CRS Report
RS21529, CRS Report RS21654, and CRS Report RL31718.
Background on Wahhabism
Definitions. Wahhabism is a puritanical form of Sunni Islam and is practiced in
Saudi Arabia and Qatar, although it is much less rigidly enforced in the latter. The word
“Wahhabi” is derived from the name of a Muslim scholar, Muhammad bin Abd al
Wahhab, who lived in the Arabian peninsula during the eighteenth century (1703-1791).
Today, the term “Wahhabism” is broadly applied outside of the Arabian peninsula to refer
to a Sunni Islamic movement that seeks to purify Islam of any innovations or practices
that deviate from the seventh-century teachings of the Prophet Muhammad and his
companions.1 In most predominantly Muslim nations, however, believers who adhere to
this creed or hold similar perspectives prefer to call themselves “Unitarians”
(muwahiddun) or “Salafiyyun” (sing. Salafi, noun Salafiyya). The latter term derives
1 For more on Islam, see CRS Report RS21432, Islam: A Primer.
from the word salaf meaning to “follow” or “precede,” a reference to the followers and
companions of the Prophet Mohammed.
Some Muslims believe the Western usage of the term “Wahhabism” unfairly carries
negative and derogatory connotations. Although this paper explains differences in these
terms, it will refer to Wahhabism in association with a conservative Islamic creed
centered in and emanating from Saudi Arabia and to Salafiyya as a more general
puritanical Islamic movement that has developed independently at various times and in
various places in the Islamic world.
History of Wahhabism.2 Muhammad bin Abd al Wahhab, whose name is the
source of the word “Wahhabi,” founded a religious movement in the Arabian peninsula
during the eighteenth century (1703-1791) that sought to reverse what he perceived as
the moral decline of his society. In particular, Abd al Wahhab denounced many popular
Islamic beliefs and practices as idolatrous. Ultimately, he encouraged a “return” to the
pure and orthodox practice of the “fundamentals” of Islam, as embodied in the Quran and
in the life of the Prophet Muhammad. Muhammad bin Saud, the ancestral founder of the
modern-day Al Saud dynasty, partnered with Abd al Wahhab to begin the process of
unifying disparate tribes in the Arabian Peninsula. Their partnership formed the basis for
a close political relationship between their descendants that continues today.
Since its emergence, Wahhabism’s puritanical and iconoclastic philosophies have
resulted in conflict with other Muslim groups. Wahhabism opposes most popular Islamic
religious practices such as saint veneration, the celebration of the Prophet’s birthday, most
core Shiite traditions, and some practices associated with the mystical teachings of
Sufism. In the past, this has brought Wahhabis based in the Arabian peninsula and
elsewhere into confrontation with non-Wahhabi Sunni Muslims, Shiite Muslims, and non-
Muslims in neighboring areas. The first Saudi kingdom was destroyed by Ottoman forcesth
in the early 19 century after Wahabbi-inspired warriors seized Mecca and Medina and
threatened Ottoman dominance. Similarly, during the 1920s, Wahhabi-trained Bedouin
warriors allied with the founder of the modern Saudi kingdom, Abd al Aziz ibn Saud,
attacked fellow Sunnis in western Arabia and Shiites in southern Iraq, leading to political
confrontations and military engagements with the British empire.
Wahhabism in Saudi Arabia Today. Since the foundation of the modern
kingdom of Saudi Arabia in 1932, there has been a close relationship between the Saudi
ruling family and the Wahhabi religious establishment.3 Wahhabi-trained Bedouin
warriors known as the Ikhwan were integral to the Al Saud family’s military campaign
to reconquer and unify the Arabian peninsula from 1912 until an Ikhwan rebellion was
put down by force in 1930. Thereafter, Wahhabi clerics were integrated into the new
2 For a comprehensive discussion of Sunni Islam and the schools of Islamic legal thought, see
CRS Report RS21745, Islam: Sunnis and Shiites. For more on the history of Wahhabism, see
Alexai Vassiliev, The History of Saudi Arabia, New York University Press, 2000; and, John S.
Habib, Ibn Sa’ud’s Warriors of Islam: The Ikhwan of Najd and Their Role in the Creation of the
Sa’udi Kingdom,1910-1930. Brill, 1978.
3 Contemporary Saudi Wahhabism combines the teachings of its founder Abd al Wahhab and
other religious and cultural traditions. Eleanor Abdella Doumato, “Manning the Barricades: Islam
according to Saudi Arabia’s School Texts,” The Middle East Journal 57, no. 2 (2003):230-248.
kingdom’s religious and political establishment, and Wahhabi ideas formed the basis of
the rules and laws adopted to govern social affairs in Saudi Arabia. Wahhabism also
shaped the kingdom’s judicial and educational policies. Saudi schoolbooks historically
have denounced teachings that do not conform to Wahhabist beliefs, an issue that remains
controversial within Saudi Arabia and among outside observers.4
In September 2007, the State Department again designated Saudi Arabia as a
“Country of Particular Concern” under the International Religious Freedom Act because
“religious freedom remains severely restricted.” According to the State Department’s
2007 International Religious Freedom Report on Saudi Arabia, “the Saudi Government
confirmed a number of policies to foster greater religious tolerance, to halt the
dissemination of intolerant literature and extremist ideology within Saudi Arabia and
around the world, to protect the right to private worship and the right to possess and use
personal religious materials, to curb harassment by the religious police, to empower its
Human Rights Commission, to eliminate discrimination against non-Muslim religious
minorities, and to respect the rights of Muslims who do not follow the Government's
interpretation of Islam.” The report also notes that members of the Shiite Muslim
minority continue to face political, educational, legal, social, and religious discrimination
and that there is “no legal recognition or protection of religious freedom.”5
Political and Religious Factors
What Is Salafiyya? As noted above, among adherents in general, preference is
given to the term “Salafiyya” over “Wahhabism.” These terms have distinct historical
roots, but they have been used interchangeably in recent years, especially in the West.
Wahhabism is considered by some Muslims as the Saudi form of Salafiyya. Unlike the
eighteenth-century Saudi roots of Wahhabism, however, modern Salafi beliefs grew from
a reform-oriented movement of the late nineteenth and early twentieth century, which
developed in various parts of the Islamic world and progressively grew more
conservative. In line with other puritanical Islamic teachings, Salafis generally believe
that the Quran and the Prophet’s practices (hadith) are the ultimate religious authority in
Islam, rather than the subsequent commentaries produced by Islamic scholars that
interpret these sources.6 Salafiyya is not a unified movement, and there exists no single
Salafi “sect.” However, Salafi interpretations of Islam appeal to a large number of
Muslims worldwide who seek religious renewal in the face of modern challenges.
The Use of Violence. According to a number of scholars, the waging of violent7
jihad is not inherently associated with puritanical Islamic beliefs. Among certain
puritanical Muslims — be they self-described Salafis or Wahhabis — advocacy of jihad
4 Michaela Prokop, “Saudi Arabia: The Politics of Education,” Int. Affairs, 79, no. 1, pp. 77-89.
5 Approximately two million Shiites are citizens of Saudi Arabia. Report available online at
[ h t t p : / / www.st at e.go v/ g/ dr l / r l s / i r f / 2007/ 90220.ht m] .
6 Ahmad Dallal, “Appropriating the Past: Twentieth-Century Reconstruction of Pre-Modern
Islamic Thought,” Islamic Law and Society 7, no. 1 (Leiden, 2000): 347.
7 Jihad literally means “striving” or “struggle.” It is frequently used to refer to a “holy war,”
although this term does not appear in the Quran but in a number of hadith or recorded sayings
of the Prophet Mohammed and his companions.
is a relatively recent phenomenon and remains highly disputed within these groups.
Although Wahhabi clerics and converts have advocated religiously motivated violence
and played military roles at key moments in Saudi history, most scholars date the
ascendancy of militancy within the wider Salafi community to the war of resistance
against the Soviet occupation of Afghanistan during the 1980s. The war against the
Soviets gained wide support throughout the Muslim world and mobilized thousands of
volunteer fighters. Radical beliefs spread rapidly through select groups of mosques and8
madrasas (Islamic religious schools), located on the Afghanistan-Pakistan border, which
were created to support the Afghan resistance and funded primarily by Saudi Arabia.
Similar U.S. and European funding provided to Pakistan to aid the Afghan mujahideen
also may have been diverted to fund the construction and maintenance of madrasas.
Following the war, militant Salafis with ties to the Afghan resistance denounced leaders
of countries such as Saudi Arabia and Egypt as “apostates” and as vehicles for facilitating
Western imperialism. The Taliban movement also emerged from this network of
institutions.
Violent Salafist-inspired groups such as Al Qaeda continue to advocate the
overthrow of the Saudi government and other regimes and the establishment of states that
will sustain puritanical Islamic doctrine enforced under a strict application of shari’a or
Islamic law. Although the majority of Salafi adherents do not advocate the violence
enshrined in Bin Laden’s message, violent Salafist ideology has attracted a number of
followers throughout the Muslim world. Analysts note that some receptive groups are
drawn to the anti-U.S. political messages preached by Bin Laden and his supporters,
despite the fact that these groups may hold different religious beliefs.
Recent Allegations against Wahhabism and Responses
There have been two major allegations against Wahhabism and against the Saudi
Arabian government, which is viewed as its principal proponent:
“Wahhabism Spreads Terrorism”? It is widely acknowledged that the Saudi
government, as well as wealthy Saudi individuals, have supported the spread of the
Wahhabist ideas in several Muslim countries and in the United States and Europe. Some
have argued that this proselyting has promoted terrorism and has spawned Islamic
militancy throughout the world.9 Saudi funding of mosques, madrasas, and charities,
some of which have been linked to terrorist groups such as Al Qaeda, has raised concern
that Wahhabi Islam has been used by militants who tailor this ideology to suit their
political goals and who rely on Saudi donations to support their aspirations.
“Wahhabism Spreads Intolerance”? Some reports suggest that teachings
within Saudi domestic schools may foster intolerance of other religions and cultures. A
2002 study by the Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS) indicates that
“some Saudi textbooks taught Islamic tolerance while others viciously condemned Jews
8 See CRS Report RS21654, Islamic Religious Schools, Madrasas: Background.
9 See Council on Foreign Relations Independent Task Force on Terrorist Financing, “Update on
the Global Campaign Against Terrorist Financing,” June 15, 2004, p. 20.
and Christians...[and] use rhetoric that was little more than hate literature.”10 Others also
have argued that the global spread of Wahhabist teachings threatens the existence of more
moderate Islamic beliefs and practices in other parts of the world, including the United
States.11 A 2005 report from Freedom House’s Center for Religious Freedom cites
examples of what its authors calls “hate ideology” taken from a number of Saudi12
government publications that have been distributed in U.S. mosques and Islamic centers.
Recent attention to Wahhabi clerics in Saudi Arabia has focused on harsh sectarian
rhetoric accusing Shiite Muslims in Iraq and elsewhere of religious apostasy and political
disloyalty worthy of punishment. An October 2006 petition signed by 38 prominent Saudi
religious figures called on Sunnis everywhere to oppose a joint “crusader [U.S.], Safavid
[Iranian] and Rafidi [derogatory term for Shiite] scheme” to target Iraq’s Sunni Arab
population.13
Saudi Arabia’s Response. The Saudi Arabian government has strenuously
denied the above allegations. Saudi officials continue to assert that Islam is tolerant and
peaceful, and they have denied allegations that their government exports religious or
cultural extremism or supports extremist religious education.14 In response to allegations
of teaching intolerance, the Saudi government has embarked on a campaign of educational
reforms designed to remove divisive material from curricula and improve teacher
performance, although the outcome of these reforms remains to be seen. Confrontation
with religious figures over problematic remarks and activities poses political challenges
for the Saudi government, because some key Wahhabi clerics support Saudi government
efforts to de-legitimize terrorism inside the kingdom and have sponsored or participated
in efforts to religiously re-educate former Saudi combatants.
Current U.S. Policy and Legislation
In light of allegations against Wahhabism, some critics have called for a reevaluation
of the relationship between the United States and Saudi Arabia, although others maintain
that U.S. economic and security interests require continued and close ties with the Saudis.
The Bush administration has praised Saudi counter-terrorism cooperation, and President15
Bush has praised Islam and denounced groups that have “hijacked a great religion.”
9/11 Commission. The Final Report of the National Commission on Terrorist
Attacks Upon the United States (the “9/11 Commission”) claims that “Islamist terrorism”
10 Saudi Arabia: Opposition, Islamic Extremism, and Terrorism, Report by the Center for
Strategic and International Studies (CSIS), Nov. 27, 2002, p. 18.
11 U.S. Commission on International Religious Freedom, Hearing: “Is Saudi Arabia a Strategic
Threat?” Nov. 18, 2003, [http://www.uscirf.gov/events/hearings/2003/november/11182003_saudi
Threat.html].
12 Freedom House, “Saudi Publications on Hate Ideology Fill American Mosques,” Jan. 2005.
13 “Saudi Arabian Clerics Issue Statement Backing Iraq’s Sunni Muslims,” Open Source Center
(OSC) Document - GMP20061211837002, Dec. 10, 2006.
14 “Saudi Arabia’s Highest Religious Authority Warns Against the Dangers of Extremism,” Aug.
15 “Remarks by President George W. Bush on U.S. Humanitarian Aid to Afghanistan,” Oct. 11,
finds inspiration in “a long tradition of extreme intolerance” that flows “through the
founders of Wahhabism,” the Muslim Brotherhood, and prominent Salafi thinkers. The
report further details the education and activities of some 9/11 hijackers in the Al Qassim
province of Saudi Arabia, which the report describes as “the very heart of the strict
Wahhabi movement in Saudi Arabia.” According to the Commission, some Saudi
“Wahhabi- funded organizations,” such as the now-defunct Al Haramain Islamic
Foundation, “have been exploited by extremists to further their goal of violent jihad16
against non-Muslims.” Due in part to these findings, the Commission recommended a
frank discussion of the relationship between the United States and its “problematic ally,”
Saudi Arabia.
Issues for Congress. Wahhabism has been a focus of congressional hearings,
which have examined the relationship between Wahhabi religious belief and terroristth
financing, as well as its alleged ties to the spread of intolerance. Several bills in the 108
Congress criticized Saudi-funded religious institutions and alleged that they provide
ideological support for anti-Western terrorism. Section 7105(b) of the Intelligence
Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act of 2004 (P.L. 108-458, December 17, 2004)
expressed the sense of Congress that “there should be a more robust dialogue between the
people and Government of the United States and the people and Government of Saudi
Arabia.” Section 7120(b) of the act required the President to submit to Congress within
180 days a strategy for collaboration with Saudi Arabia, which was to include proposals
for promoting tolerance and diversity in Saudi Arabia and for diminishing support for
extremist groups from Saudi sources. The report was submitted in classified form in
September 2005.17
In the 110th Congress, P.L.110-53, the Implementing Recommendations of the 9/11
Commission Act of 2007 (signed August 3, 2007), states that “the Kingdom of Saudi
Arabia has an uneven record in the fight against terrorism, especially with respect to...
support for radical madrassas... and restrictions on religious pluralism.” The bill requires
the Administration to submit a report to Congress 180 days following enactment
describing the long-term strategy of the United States to engage with the government of
Saudi Arabia to facilitate political, economic, and social reforms, including greater
religious freedom. House and Senate versions of the Saudi Arabia Accountability Act of
2243 specifically would require the President to certify whether the government of Saudi
Arabia “has stopped financing and disseminating materials, and other forms of support,
that encourage the spread of radical Wahhabi ideology.” Both bills have been referred to
committees of jurisdiction.
16 See CRS Report RL32499, Saudi Arabia: Terrorist Financing Issues.
17 House Committee on International Relations, Survey of Activities, Week of September 6, 2005:
Letter Transmitting Report — September 7, 2005, CLASSIFIED, Department of State, pursuant
to Sec. 7120 of the Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act, 2004 (P.L. 108-458); Ex.
Comm. 3684.