Religion and the Workplace: Legal Analysis of Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 as It Applies to Religious Organizations

^Pr^ep^ar^{ed f}^o^r^M^e^m^b^ers^an^d^Com^mⁱ^t^t^ees^of^C^ong^r^e^ss

Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 protects employees against discrimination by certain
employers. Among other things, Title VII generally prohibits employers from discriminating
against employees on the basis of religion. Title VII prohibits discriminatory treatment of
employees on the basis of their religious beliefs and requires employers to make reasonable
accommodations for employees’ religious practices. Religious organizations, however, may be
exempt from some of the prohibitions of Title VII.
Congress regularly has proposed legislation that would amend the definition of religion under
Title VII and has introduced proposals to clarify which actions would qualify as religious
discrimination under the act. At times, legislative proposals that would not directly affect Title
VII’s prohibition on religious discrimination raise questions related to the protections provided
for religion. Therefore, legislative proposals that would amend other parts of Title VII may lead to
interest in the current interpretation and protections offered to religious groups.
This report reviews the scope of Title VII as it applies to religion and religious organizations and
the requirements of the anti-discrimination protections and the accommodations provision. It also
analyzes the exemptions available to religious organizations for the non-discrimination rules.

General Application of Title VII......................................................................................................1
Scope of Protection for Religion and Religious Belief...................................................................1
Unlawful Employment Practices Related to Religion.....................................................................2
Exemptions ...................................................................................................................................... 2
Accommodations Requirement.......................................................................................................4
Congressional Interest.....................................................................................................................6
Author Contact Information............................................................................................................6

The Civil Rights Act (CRA) of 1964 created protections for civil rights across a wide spectrum,
including religion. Title VII of the CRA prohibits discrimination in employment on the basis of ¹
race, color, religion, national origin, or sex. Title VII applies to employers with 15 or more
employees, including the federal government and state and local governments. Individuals who
believe they are victims of employment discrimination may file a complaint with the Equal
Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC), which is responsible for enforcing individual
Title VII claims against private employers. The Department of Justice enforces Title VII against
state and local governments but may do so only after the EEOC has conducted an initial ²
investigation.

Section 701 of Title VII defines religion to include
^{all as}^pects^of^reli^gⁱ^ous^obs^erv^aⁿ^{ce a}ⁿ^{d practice, as}^w^e^{ll a}^s^belief^,^un^le^s^s^aⁿ^e^m^plo^y^er
^dem^oⁿ^s^trate^s^t^h^at^h^e^is^un^able^{to reas}^on^abl^y^acco^m^m^{odate to}^an^e^m^plo^y^ee^’^s^{or pros}^pectiv^e
^e^m^pl^o^y^ee^’^s^relⁱ^gⁱ^ous^obs^erv^a^{nce or pract}ⁱ^{ce w}ⁱ^t^h^ou^t^un^du^e^hards^hⁱ^p^on^t^h^{e co}ⁿ^d^u^c^t^of^t^h^e³
^e^m^pl^o^y^er’s^busⁱⁿ^e^s^s^.
This definition of religion forms the basis of requirements for employers under Title VII. Under
the statutory definition, employers cannot use an employee’s (or applicant’s) religious observance
or religious practice against the employee if the employer can reasonably accommodate the
observance or practice without undue hardship on the business. If an employer does discriminate
based on a religious observance or practice that can be reasonably accommodated, the employer
may be in violation of Title VII’s prohibition on discrimination on the basis of religion.
Sometimes whether a particular observance or practice is religious is disputed. Religious
practices and observances are generally considered “to include moral or ethical beliefs as to what ⁴
is right and wrong which are sincerely held with the strength of traditional religious views.” The
belief does not need to be accepted by any religious group and does not need to be accepted by
the religious group to which the individual belongs in order to qualify as religious under Title ⁵
VII. Courts have upheld this understanding that a religious belief does not need to meet objective

¹^{42 U}^.^S.C^.^§²⁰^00e^e^t^s^e^q^.
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⁵^{29 C}^.^F.R^.^§¹⁶⁰⁵^.1.

tests of reasonableness, but instead must be a sincerely held belief of the individual regardless of ⁶
its broader acceptance.

While Title VII and the related regulations provide a broad prohibition on discrimination based on
religion as it is defined alone, Section 703 of Title VII more specifically defines unlawful
employment practices under the CRA. This section prohibits employers from using religion as a
basis for hiring or discharging any individual. It further prohibits employers from discriminating
“with respect to his compensation, terms, conditions, or privileges of employment” because of the ⁷
individual’s religion. The section also prohibits employers from limiting or separating employees
or applicants “in any way which would deprive or tend to deprive any individual of employment ⁸
opportunities or otherwise adversely affect his status as an employee.... ”
Title VII generally prohibits employers from treating employees of one religion differently from
the way they treat employees of another religion. Employers cannot consider religion when ⁹
scoring results of employment-related tests; cannot use religion as a motivating factor for any ¹⁰
action, even if other factors also motivated the action; cannot retaliate against any individual
who opposed an employer’s action that is unlawful under Title VII or participated in the ¹¹
investigation of the unlawful action; and cannot publish or advertise any preference based on ¹²
religion, unless that preference is based on a bona fide occupational qualification. The
discrimination prohibited by Title VII includes harassment that is “sufficiently severe or
pervasive to alter the conditions of [the victim’s] employment and create an abusive working ¹³
environment.” Furthermore, an employee cannot be required to participate in any religious ¹⁴
activity as part of his or her employment.

Title VII does not apply to all situations of religious discrimination. In addition to exempting
employers with fewer than 15 employees, Title VII includes exceptions that allow certain
employers to consider religion in employment decisions. Specifically, Title VII’s prohibition
against religious discrimination does not apply to “a religious corporation, association,
educational institution, or society with respect to the employment [i.e., hiring and retention] of

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individuals of a particular religion to perform work connected with the carrying on by such ¹⁵
corporation, association, educational institution, or society of its activities.” However, the
statute does not define “religious corporation, association, educational institution, or society.”
Court decisions appear to indicate several factors relevant to deciding whether an organization
qualifies for the exemption. Courts have considered (1) the purpose or mission of the
organization; (2) the ownership, affiliation, or source of financial support of the organization; (3)
requirements placed upon staff and members of the organization (faculty and students if the
organization is a school); and (4) the extent of religious practices in or the religious nature of ¹⁶
products and services offered by the organization.
Title VII also provides two more specific exemptions. One separate, but similar, exemption
applies specifically to religious educational institutions. That exemption allows such institutions
“to hire and employ employees of a particular religion if [the institution] is, in whole or in
substantial part, owned, supported, controlled, or managed by a particular religion or by a
particular [organization], or if the curriculum of [the institution] is directed toward the ¹⁷
propagation of a particular religion.” The other exemption provided in Title VII allows
employers to discriminate on the basis of religion, sex, or national origin if those factors are “a
bona fide occupational qualification reasonably necessary to the normal operation of that ¹⁸
particular business or enterprise.” This exemption based on bona fide occupational ¹⁹
qualifications has been construed narrowly. Accordingly, courts have deemed valid
discriminatory qualifications to arise only in situations where religion plays an extremely
significant part of the work environment, including, for example, jobs where employee safety is ²⁰
threatened because of the employee’s religious affiliation.
Exemptions for religious organizations in the context of Title VII are not absolute. Once an
organization qualifies as an entity eligible for Title VII exemption, it is permitted to discriminate
on the basis of religion in its employment decisions. The exemption does not allow qualifying
organizations to discriminate on any other basis forbidden by Title VII. Thus, although a religious
organization may consider an employee or applicant’s religion without violating Title VII, the
organization may still violate Title VII if it considers the individual’s race, color, national origin, ²¹
or sex. Furthermore, the exemptions in Title VII appear to apply only with respect to

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employment decisions regarding hiring and firing of employees based on religion. Once an
organization makes a decision to employ an individual, the organization may not discriminate on
the basis of religion regarding the terms and conditions of employment, including compensation,
benefits, privileges, etc. In other words, religious organizations that decide to hire individuals
with other religious beliefs cannot later choose to discriminate against those individuals with ²²
regard to wages or other benefits that the organization provides to employees.
It is important to note one more exemption relevant to Title VII’s prohibition on religious
discrimination. Religious organizations’ right to choose spiritual leaders is protected under the
Constitution’s Free Exercise Clause. Even before Title VII granted an exemption to religious
organizations’ hiring decisions generally, the U.S. Supreme Court recognized that the “freedom to
select the clergy” has “federal constitutional protection as part of the free exercise of religion ²³
against state interference.” Title VII’s prohibition on use of religion in employment decisions
would appear to interfere with this constitutional freedom specific to clergy. The judicially
created “ministerial exception,” as this protection has become known, reconciles Title VII with
the Free Exercise Clause by allowing religious organizations to select clergy without regard to
any of Title VII’s restrictions but requires that employment decisions made regarding other ²⁴
positions within the organization comply with Title VII’s requirements or exemptions.

Under Title VII, employers are prohibited from acting on the basis of employees’ observances and
practices only if they can be reasonably accommodated without undue hardship on the
employer’s business. In other words, the employer may discriminate on the basis of observances ²⁵
and practices that cannot be reasonably accommodated without undue hardship. EEOC
regulations provide guidelines for what constitutes reasonable accommodation and undue
hardship. Once an employee requests religious accommodation, the employer must consider
whether the requested accommodation is reasonable or what reasonable alternatives might be

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^Of^Amer^.^{, 83}^F.3^d⁴⁵^{5 (}^D^.C^{. C}ⁱ^r^.¹⁹⁹⁶⁾⁾^.^Pe^trusk^a^exp^l^aiⁿ^s^t^h^at^w^h^et^h^e^{r an}^em^p^l^o^y^e^e^q^u^a^lⁱ^fⁱ^e^s^f^o^{r t}^h^{e m}ⁱⁿⁱ^st^eri^a^l
^e^x^c^e^p^{tion de}^pe^nds^{on “}^t^he^f^unc^ti^on^of^the^p^o^sitio^{n. A}^s^a^g^e^ne^ra^{l rule}^{, a}ⁿ^e^m^ploy^e^e^w^{ill be}^c^onsi^d^e^r^e^d^a^mⁱ^niste^r^if^he^r
^p^rⁱ^m^ar^y^d^u^tⁱ^e^{s i}ⁿ^cl^u^d^e^t^eachⁱⁿ^g,^s^p^readⁱⁿ^{g t}^h^{e f}^aⁱ^t^h^,^ch^u^r^{ch go}^vern^an^ce,^su^p^e^rvi^sⁱ^o^{n o}^f^{a rel}ⁱ^gⁱ^o^u^s^o^r^d^e^r,^o^r^s^u^p^e^rvi^sⁱ^oⁿ
^of^pa^rtic^ipa^tio^{n i}ⁿ^re^lig^io^{us ritua}^l^a^{nd w}^o^rship^.^”^Pe^trusk^a^,⁴⁶^{2 F}^.³^d^a^t³⁰^{4, f}^o^o^tⁿ^o^te^{6 (}ⁱ^nte^r^na^l^q^uota^tion^m^a^r^k^s^a^nd
^c^ita^{tions om}^itte^d).
²⁵^{42 U}^.^S.C^.^§²⁰^00e⁽^j⁾^.

provided.²⁶ If more than one accommodation is possible without causing undue hardship, the
EEOC determines the reasonableness of the chosen accommodation by examining the alternatives ²⁷
considered by the employer and the alternatives actually offered to the employee. If more than
one manner of accommodation would not cause undue hardship, “the employer ... must offer the
alternative which least disadvantages the individual with respect to his or her employment ²⁸
opportuni ti es.”
Employee requests for accommodation arise most often because religious practices conflict with
work schedules. EEOC guidelines suggest three possible accommodation alternatives in such
situations. First, the employer may permit a voluntary substitute policy under which employees
can find substitutes to cover their tasks during the conflict. Second, employers may create a
flexible work schedule, including flexible arrival and departure times, floating holidays, flexible
breaks, use of lunch time for early departure, and staggered work hours. Third, the employer may
consider a lateral transfer for individuals whose religious practices cannot be accommodated in ²⁹
their current position. Another common scenario in which employees request accommodations
is under a provision in collective bargaining agreements that the employee must join a labor
organization or pay an amount equivalent to dues to that organization. When an employee objects
to this requirement on religious grounds, the EEOC recommends that the organization make an
exception for that employee or allow the employee to donate the equivalent of the amount due to ³⁰
a charitable organization. Requests for accommodation may also arise when an employee’s
religious beliefs conflict with a work requirement, such as performing abortions, treating gay ³¹
patients, or complying with dress codes.
In order for these accommodations to be appropriate under Title VII, they must not cause undue
hardship to the employer. Employers cannot claim undue hardship on “a mere assumption that ³²
many more people ... may also need accommodation.” The regulations provide two general
bases that may justify undue hardship: cost and seniority rights. An employer may refuse to
accommodate an employee’s religious practice if “the accommodation would require more than a ³³
de minimis cost.” The EEOC determines whether an accommodation exceeds a de minimis cost
by evaluating the cost incurred to the particular employer and the number of employees that will ³⁴
need the accommodation. Generally, administrative costs of rescheduling are considered de ³⁵
minimis costs. An employer may also refuse to accommodate because the accommodation ³⁶
would interfere with the preference guaranteed by a seniority system. Because seniority systems
create “a neutral way of minimizing the number of occasions when an employee must work on a

²⁶^Se^e²⁹^C.F.R^.^§¹⁶⁰⁵^.2^.
²⁷^{29 C}^.^F.R^.^§¹⁶⁰⁵^.2(^c⁾⁽²⁾^.
²⁸^Id^.
²⁹^{29 C}^.^F.R^.^§¹⁶⁰⁵^.2(^d⁾⁽¹⁾^.
³⁰^{29 C}^.^F.R^.^§¹⁶⁰⁵^.2(^d⁾⁽²⁾^.
³¹^F^o^{r a}^dⁱ^scu^ssi^on^o^f^ho^w^co^u^r^t^s^{have d}^eci^d^e^dⁱⁿ^{cases rel}^a^tⁱⁿ^{g t}^o^t^h^{ese req}^u^e^st^s,^{see t}^h^{e In}^f^o^rm^al^Di^s^c^u^ssi^oⁿ^L^e^t^t^e^r
^pre^p^a^r^e^d^by^the^EEO^{C O}^f^fⁱ^c^e^o^f^L^e^g^a^{l Couns}^e^l^re^g^a^rding^T^itle^V^I^{I: Re}^lig^ious^Ex^pre^s^sⁱ^oⁿ^,^at^h^t^t^p^:^/^/^www^.^eeo^c.^go^v/^f^oⁱ^a^/
^le^tte^rs/200^4/^title^v^ii_re^lig^ious^_e^x^p^re^ssion.htm^l^.
³²^{29 C}^.^F.R^.^§¹⁶⁰⁵^.2(^c⁾⁽¹⁾^.
³³^{29 C}^.^F.R.^§¹⁶⁰⁵^.2(e⁾⁽¹⁾⁽ⁱⁿ^t^e^r^na^{l qu}^ota^tⁱ^ons^om^itte^d).
³⁴^Id^.
³⁵^Id^.
³⁶^{29 C}^.^F.R^.^§¹⁶⁰⁵^.2(^e⁾⁽²⁾^.^S^{ee a}^l^s^o^T^r^aⁿ^s^W^o^r^l^{d A}ⁱ^r^line^s^v^.^H^a^r^d^is^on,⁴³^{2 U}^.^S.^{63 (}¹⁹⁷⁷⁾⁽^h^oldi^ng^t^h^a^t^e^m^ploy^e^r^did
^{not v}ⁱ^ola^t^e^T^itle^V^{II w}^h^eⁿ^it^use^d^a^re^lig^iously^ne^utra^{l se}^niority^s^y^st^e^m^{to de}^te^rm^ine^e^m^ploy^e^e^w^o^rk^s^c^he^dule^s^).

day that he would prefer to have off,” Title VII does not require that seniority systems “must give ³⁷
way when necessary to accommodate religious observances.”

Congress regularly has proposed legislation that would amend the definition of religion under
Title VII and has introduced proposals to clarify which actions would qualify as religious ³⁸
discrimination under the act. At times, legislative proposals that would not directly affect Title
VII’s prohibition on religious discrimination raise questions related to the protections provided
for religion. For instance, the scope of Title VII’s exemption for religious organizations has been
significant in the debate for other non-discrimination legislation. The proposed Employment Non-
Discrimination Act of 2007 (ENDA) would have prohibited discrimination based on sexual ³⁹
orientation. Because several religious organizations hold religious beliefs that prohibit
homosexuality, the bill led to debate regarding the continued applicability of Title VII’s
exemption. Therefore, legislative proposals that would amend other parts of Title VII may lead to
interest in the current interpretation and protections offered to religious groups.
^C^ynt^hi^a^B^r^o^u^g^h^e^r
^L^e^gⁱ^s^l^at^iv^{e A}^t^torn^e^y
^c^b^r^o^ughe^r^@^c^r^s.^l^o^c^.^go^v,⁷^-⁹¹²¹

³⁷^Ha^rd^ison^,⁴³^{2 U}^.^S^.^a^t^78-^79.
³⁸^S^ee,^e.^g^.^,^H^.^R^.¹⁴³¹^{, 1}¹⁰^th^C^o^ng^{. (}²⁰⁰⁷⁾^;^S.³⁶²⁸^{, 1}¹⁰^th^C^o^ng^{. (}²⁰⁰⁸⁾^.
³⁹^H.^R^.³⁶⁸⁵^,¹¹⁰^th^C^ong^{. (}²⁰⁰⁷⁾^.