Compact Fluorescent Light Bulbs (CFLs): Issues with Use and Disposal
Compact Fluorescent Light Bulbs (CFLs):
Issues with Use and Disposal
Linda Luther
Analyst in Environmental Policy
Resources, Science, and Industry Division
Summary
Compact fluorescent light bulbs (CFLs), a smaller version of fluorescent tubes, are
produced with technology that allows them to fit into standard lighting products such
as lamps and ceiling fixtures. The bulbs use one-fifth to one-quarter the energy and can
last 10 times longer than traditional incandescent light bulbs. These factors have led to
a significant increase in the sales of CFLs. According to the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA), CFL sales doubled in 2007 and now represent 20% of the
U.S. light bulb market. Sales may be expected to increase with the implementation of
new energy efficiency standards for lighting specified in the Energy Independence and
Security Act of 2007 (P.L. 110-140, enacted December 19, 2007). Those standards
require certain light bulbs to use 25% to 30% less energy than today’s products
beginning in 2012. CFLs already meet the standards.
The increased use of CFLs has led to concern among some groups over the
presence in the bulbs of mercury, a potent neurotoxin. By way of example, EPA has
likened the amount of mercury in individual bulbs to that which could fit on the tip of
a ballpoint pen — ranging from 2 to 6 milligrams (mg). At these levels, mercury is
virtually harmless to consumers. Still, EPA recommends that caution be taken in
cleaning up broken CFLs to minimize potential mercury exposure. EPA also
recommends that spent bulbs be recycled, instead of disposed of with household
garbage, in areas where CFL recycling is available. (Federal regulations that apply to the
disposal of mercury-containing products (e.g., lighting, switches, thermometers) do not
apply to households.) Further, EPA has noted that increased CFL use may actually
reduce overall mercury emissions to the environment by potentially reducing power use
— coal-fired power plants are the greatest individual source of mercury emissions in the
United States.
This report discusses reasons why CFL sales have increased dramatically in the past
two years, concerns that have arisen regarding their use and disposal, and some media
reports that have exaggerated the potential danger associated with the mercury in CFLs.
In 2001, lighting accounted for 8.8 % (101 billion kilowatt hours) of U.S. household
electricity use. Incandescent lamps, which are commonly found in households, are highly
inefficient sources of light because about 90% of the energy they use is lost as heat.1 For
that reason, lighting has been one focus of efforts to increase the efficiency of household
electricity consumption.
Lighting manufacturers are now producing products that are significantly more
energy-efficient than incandescent bulbs. Such lighting includes fluorescent bulbs. Long
considered a more economical choice for commercial and industrial lighting, compact
fluorescent light bulbs are becoming more attractive to household consumers. The
primary difference between a compact fluorescent light bulb (CFL)2 and a fluorescent tube
is the size. Unlike tubes, CFLs are made to fit into products that can be plugged into
standard household light sockets like table lamps and ceiling fixtures. Compared to
incandescent bulbs that use a heated filament to produce light, CFLs contain a gas that
produces invisible ultraviolet (UV) light when the gas is excited by electricity. UV light
hits a white coating inside the fluorescent bulb, which alters the light into light visible to
a human eye. Because fluorescent bulbs do not use heat to create light, they are far more
energy-efficient than regular incandescent bulbs.3 In the past, complaints about the high
cost, harsh light quality, and the inability to use with a dimmer made CFLs less attractive
to some consumers. However, improvements in technology have resulted in less
expensive CFLs that illuminate more softly, emitting light similar to light from an
incandescent bulb, that are capable of dimming.
Increased Use of CFLs
CFL sales have increased significantly in the past two years. According to the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 290 million Energy Star-qualified4 CFLs were
sold in 2007.5 That is nearly double the number sold in 2006 (the year that CFL market
share increased from a steady 5% to 11%), and represents almost 20% of the U.S. light
bulb market.
Energy Efficiency of CFLs. The primary factors contributing to the rise in
popularity of CFLs are their energy efficiency and longer life. According to the
Department of Energy (DOE), CFLs use about 75% less energy than standard
incandescent bulbs and last up to 10 times longer. Further, according to EPA, the increase
1 The Department of Energy’s Energy Information Administration, “U.S. Household Electricity
Report,” released July 14, 2005, available online at [http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/reps/enduse/
er01_us.html].
2 “CFL” actually stands for compact fluorescent lamp.
3 General Electric, “Compact Fluorescent Light Bulb (CFL) FAQs,” available online at
[ h t t p : / / www.ge l i ght i n g. c o m/ na / home _ l i ght i n g/ a s k_us / f a q_c ompa c t .ht m] .
4 Energy Star is a joint program of EPA and the Department of Energy. Among other goals, the
program advocates energy-efficient products and practices. More information about the program
is available on the program’s website at [http://www.energystar.gov/].
5 See EPA Press Release, “EPA and DOE Spread a Bright Idea: Energy Star Light Bulbs are
Helping to Change the World,” January 15, 2008, available online at [http://yosemite.epa.gov/
opa/admpress.nsf/d0cf6618 525a9efb85257359003fb69d/ 970f05bf0bc5d9aa852573d10055b3
in sales is due in part to increases in consumer education and promotion by Energy Star
retail partners such as Wal-Mart, Lowe’s, Home Depot, Costco, Ace Hardware, and
Sam’s Club.
New Energy Efficiency Standards for Lighting. Another factor that may
further increase the use of CFLs is the development of energy efficiency standards for
lighting. Sections 321 and 322 of the Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 (P.L.
110-140, enacted December 12, 2007; referred to hereafter as the Energy Act) established
energy efficiency standards for certain types of incandescent lamps, incandescent reflector
lamps, and fluorescent lamps. The standards specify the maximum wattage that can be
used to power lights within a range of lumens (a measure of the perceived power of light).
For example, a standard North American incandescent light bulb that emits approximately
1,700 lumens uses 100 watts of power. A CFL emitting comparable lumens uses
approximately 23 watts. The new standard would require incandescent lamps emitting
comparable lumens to use no more than 72 watts. The deadlines for meeting the new
standard fall between January 1, 2012, to January 1, 2014, depending on the range of
lumens emitted by various bulbs. CFLs already meet the Energy Act’s energy standard.
The Energy Act has been interpreted by some as a prohibition on the sale or
production of incandescent bulbs, or as a mandatory requirement to use CFLs. Neither is
true. The Energy Act only establishes standards that incandescent bulbs must meet — it
does not prohibit their use, nor does it mandate the use of CFLs.6
Concerns Regarding Mercury in CFLs
Mercury is a highly volatile, naturally occurring element. It conducts electricity, is
liquid at room temperature, combines easily with other metals, and expands and contracts
evenly with temperature change. These properties make mercury useful in a variety of
household, medical, and industrial products and processes. Mercury is also a potent
neurotoxin that can, at certain exposure levels, cause brain, lung, and kidney damage.
Mercury is an essential component of CFLs that allows a bulb to be an efficient light
source. Fluorescent bulbs, unlike many other mercury-containing consumer products, are
among the few products for which non-mercury substitutes do not exist. Still, over the
past 20 years, the mercury content in fluorescent tubes and bulbs has declined steadily.
A CFL generally contains 2 to 6 milligrams (mg) of mercury (an amount that poses
virtually no risk of harm7). By comparison, mercury has been present for decades in the
following household products: watch batteries (25 mg), dental amalgams (500 mg),
thermometers (500 mg to 2 grams (g)), thermostats (3 g), electrical switches and relays
(3.5 g), and standard fluorescent tubes (up to 40 mg; lighting manufacturers now produce
low-mercury fluorescent tubes that generally contain less than 9 mg of mercury).
Concerns About Mercury Releases During CFL Use. Increased use of CFLs
has generated concern among some over the potential danger the bulbs may pose if broken
6 For more information about the Energy Act, see CRS Report RL34294, Energy Independence
and Security Act of 2007: A Summary of Major Provisions, by Fred Sissine.
7 National Electrical Manufacturers Association fact sheet “Handling Small Numbers of Broken
Fluorescent Lamps,” May 2004, available online at [http://www.nema.org/lamprecycle/broken-
lamps.doc].
in the home during use or after disposal. The amount of mercury that may be released by
a CFL depends on a variety of factors, including a bulb’s age at the time of disposal. As
the bulb ages, the mercury content becomes bound to the glass, where it is not readily
available for release into the environment unless it is burned (i.e., disposed of in an
incinerator).8 Therefore, it is possible to essentially eliminate potential mercury releases
from CFLs if they are not broken, particularly when new, or incinerated.
Mercury is not released from CFLs during normal use. Consumers would be exposed
to mercury only if a bulb were to break. At room temperature, some of a bulb’s metallic
mercury will evaporate and form mercury vapors; however, the danger posed from
exposure to the amount of mercury in an individual CFL is minimal.9 Although the
potential risk of harm associated with CFL use is relatively low, certain precautions are
recommended to avoid spreading of mercury vapor. Several federal and state agencies
have published cleanup and disposal recommendations for CFLs.10 Guidance from the
different agencies varies slightly, but generally recommends the following steps:
!open a window and leave the room for 15 minutes, and keep pregnant
women, children, and pets away from the area until it is cleaned up;
!gather glass fragments and powder — on hard surfaces, use stiff paper or
cardboard (do not vacuum), and on carpet, pick up large pieces wearing
disposable gloves;
!use sticky tape, such as duct tape, to pick up any remaining small glass
fragments and powder;
!wipe the area clean with damp paper towels or disposable wet wipes; and
!place all waste and cleaning materials in a glass jar with a metal lid or in
a sealed plastic bag, and immediately place all materials outdoors and
check with local or state government about disposal requirements.
In guidance provided by the Energy Star program, it has been noted that the use of
CFLs in place of incandescent bulbs could actually reduce the amount of mercury
emissions to the environment.11 Coal-fired power plants currently account for 40% of
8 Northwest Energy Efficiency Alliance, “CFL Disposal Kit,” September 20, 2004, available
online at [http://www.northwestenergystar.com/index.php?cID=168].
9 To provide some context, with regard to typical sources of mercury exposure, the Department
of Health and Human Services (HHS) estimates that mercury from dental amalgam may
contribute up to 75% of an individual’s total daily mercury exposure. See the HHS, Agency for
Toxic Substance and Disease Registry, “Public Health Statement for Mercury,” available online
at [http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxprofiles/phs46.html], see particularly section 1.3 “How might
I be exposed to mercury?”
10 For more detailed cleanup guidance, see “What to Do if a Fluorescent Light Bulb Breaks” on
EPA’s “Mercury-Spills, Disposal and Site Cleanup” Web page, available online at
[http://www.epa.gov/mercury/spills/index.htm#flourescent], and Maine DEP’s “Maine Compact
Fluorescent Lamp Breakage Study Report,” February 25, 2008, available online at
[ h t t p : / / www.ma i n e . go v/ de p/ r wm/ home o wne r / c f l r e por t .ht m] .
11 Energy Star, “Frequently Asked Questions: Information on Proper Disposal of Compact
Fluorescent Light Bulbs (CFLs),” available online at [http://www.energystar.gov/ia/partners/
promotions/change_light/downl oads/Fact_Sheet_Mercury.pdf].
mercury emissions in the United States.12 During a five-year span, by some estimates, a
coal-fired power plant emits 9.3 mg of mercury in the course of producing the same
amount of electricity needed to power an incandescent bulb, compared to 2.3 mg of
mercury emissions from a CFL over the same period.13 The use of CFLs in place of
incandescent bulbs could also lead to comparable decreases in carbon dioxide, sulfur
dioxide, and nitrogen oxide emissions — all pollutants emitted from coal-fired power
plants. Any additional mercury emissions associated with CFLs could be minimized if
bulbs are kept out of the waste stream (i.e., recycled rather than discarded) when spent.
Issues Regarding CFL Disposal and Recycling. Products containing mercury
may meet the federal regulatory definition of hazardous waste. Pursuant to the Resource
Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA),14 EPA has established regulations regarding the
transport, treatment, storage, and disposal of hazardous wastes. However, households are
essentially exempt from RCRA. This means that household hazardous waste (e.g., paint,
batteries, thermostats, certain cleaning fluids, and pesticides) may be disposed of in
municipal solid waste landfills or incinerators.
The mercury levels in CFLs would potentially cause them to be deemed household
hazardous waste. As such, EPA suggests that the bulbs not be discarded in household
garbage “if better disposal options exist.”15 EPA recommends that household consumers
contact their state or local environmental regulatory agency for information about proper
disposal options. If household garbage disposal is the only option, EPA recommends that
certain precautions be taken. Since CFLs discarded in the trash will likely break and
release mercury, EPA recommends that bulbs be put in two plastic bags and sealed before
placement in outdoor trash or a protected outdoor location.
Since virtually all components of a fluorescent bulb can be recycled, EPA
recommends recycling as the preferred method to manage spent CFLs. The scope of
programs to recycle CFLs varies from state to state. For example, a recycling program
operating in Minnesota allows residents to leave CFLs at any of hundreds of retail stores
across the state. A program in Indiana accepts CFLs at certain Sears stores. Also, regional
groups have formed to develop recycling options. For example, the Northwest Compact
Fluorescent Lamp Recycling Project is in the process of designing a pilot project to
recycle CFLs in Oregon and Washington.16 Another possibility is that more retailers will
begin to accept CFLs for proper disposal — IKEA currently accepts spent CFLs, and
Home Depot has begun to accept them at stores in Canada (but, not yet in the United
States).
12 Ibid.
13 Colorado Department of Public Health and Environment, “Fact Sheet on Mercury in Compact
Fluorescent Lamps (CFLs),” available online at [http://www.cdphe.state.co.us/hm/mercury/
cflfactsheet.pdf].
14 The Solid Waste Disposal Act (SWDA), enacted by Congress in 1965, provided federal
statutory provisions regarding solid waste disposal practices. RCRA was a 1976 amendment to
SWDA. All subsequent amendments to SWDA are commonly referred to as RCRA.
15 EPA makes its recommendations though Energy Star guidance ([http://www.energystar.gov/ia/
partners/promotions/change_light/downloads/Fact_Sheet_Mercury.pdf]) produced jointly with
the Department of Energy.
16 Information about the program is available online at [http://zerowaste.org/cfl/cfl_index.htm].
Generally, recycling is not widely available for waste products that are not generated
in sufficient amounts to make it economically feasible for recyclers. It is anticipated that,
as more spent CFLs enter the waste stream, recycling opportunities will increase. Further,
EPA is currently working with CFL manufacturers and U.S. retailers to expand disposal
options. Finally, under § 321(h) of the Energy Act, EPA is directed to submit to Congress
a report describing recommendations relating to the means by which the federal
government may reduce or prevent the release of mercury during the manufacture,
transport, storage, and disposal of light bulbs.
Media Reports Regarding Danger from Mercury in CFLs. A perceived
danger posed by the use of CFLs has been fed, at least in part, by some media reports
claiming hidden costs and dangers associated their use. These reports escalated after an
incident involving a broken CFL in a home in Prospect, Maine, on March 14, 2007. After
contacting various sources, the homeowner sought cleanup advice from the Maine
Department of Environmental Protection (DEP). A DEP representative advised the
homeowner to contact an environmental remediation company to remove any residual
mercury from the home. The homeowner was given a $2,000 cleanup estimate.
The Maine DEP later acknowledged that because CFLs were relatively new to the
market, department personnel had been unfamiliar with proper cleanup and disposal
requirements for the bulbs. The agency subsequently posted cleanup guidance on its
website, along with an account titled the “History and facts on CFL breakage in Prospect,17
Maine.” The initial incident was repeated by various media outlets, some of which
exaggerated the potential danger and cost associated with CFL use and disposal. For
example, one journal stated, in part,
[T]here is no problem disposing of incandescents when their life is over. You can
throw them in the trash can and they won’t hurt the garbage collector. They won’t
leech deadly compounds into the air or water. They won’t kill people working in the18
landfills. The same cannot be said about the mercury-containing CFLs.
As noted previously, significantly higher levels of mercury have been present for decades
in several other consumer products. There have been no reports of landfill worker
fatalities related to mercury exposure. Additional elements of the incident in Maine have
been widely repeated, particularly the claim that it will cost a consumer $2,000 to clean
up a broken CFL at home. Even though many of the original details and claims have been
refuted,19 the Maine incident is often cited in online news stories and Web logs,
particularly when the potential dangers associated with CFLs are discussed.
17 See [http://www.state.me.us/dep/rwm/homeowner/fluorescent.htm].
18 Joseph Farah, WorldNet Daily, “Consumers in dark over risks of new light bulbs: Push for
energy-saving fluorescents ignores mercury disposal hazards,” April 16, 2007, available online
[ h t t p : / / www.wnd.com/ n ews/ ar t i c l e .asp?ART ICLE_ID=55213] .
19 Scott Norris, National Geographic News, “Fluorescent Lights’ Mercury Poses Dim Threat,”
May 18, 2007, available online at [http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/05/070518-
cfls-bulbs.html]; also available via the Energy Star website.