Speechwriting in Perspective: A Brief Guide to Effective and Persuasive Communication







Prepared for Members and Committees of Congress



The frequent delivery of public remarks by Senators and Representatives is an important element
of their roles as community leaders, spokespersons, and freely elected legislators. Congressional
staff are often called on to help prepare draft remarks for such purposes.
Writing for the spoken word is a special discipline; it requires that congressional speechwriters’
products be written primarily, although not exclusively, to be heard, not read. Speeches are better
cast in simple, direct, and often short sentences that can be easily understood by listeners.
Rhetorical devices such as repetition, variation, cadence, and balance are available to, and should
be used by, the speechwriter.
It is important for speechwriters to analyze audiences according to factors such as age; gender;
culture; profession; size of audience; political affiliation, if any; and the occasion for, and purpose
of, the speech. Most effective speeches do not exceed 20 minutes in length.
After researching a topic, speechwriters should prepare an outline from which the speech will be
developed. They should strive to maintain a clear theme throughout the speech. Most speeches
will have a three-part structure consisting of an introduction, a body, and a conclusion.
The accepted style of contemporary American public address is natural, direct, low key, casual,
and conversational. This puts listeners at ease and promotes a sense of community between
audience and speaker.
Punctuation should reflect the sound structure of the speech, reinforcing the rhythm and pace of
actual speech. Clarity of expression is as important a consideration in speech grammar as rigid
adherence to rules for written language.
Effective delivery can greatly improve a speech. Congressional speechwriters should make every
effort to become familiar with the speaking style of the Member for whom they are writing, and
adjust their drafts accordingly.
A wide range of speechwriting resources are available for congressional staff from the
Congressional Research Service and other sources.






Introduc tion ..................................................................................................................................... 1
Writing For The Spoken Word: The Distinctive Task of The Speechwriter....................................1
Repetition and Variation............................................................................................................2
Cadence and Balance................................................................................................................2
Rhythmic Triads..................................................................................................................3
Paralleli sm .................................................................................................................... ...... 3
Alliteration .......................................................................................................................... 3
Anaphora ............................................................................................................................. 3
Antithesis ............................................................................................................................ 3
Sentence Variation.....................................................................................................................4
Rhetorical Questions...........................................................................................................4
Sentence Fragments............................................................................................................4
Inverted Order.....................................................................................................................4
Suspension for Climax........................................................................................................4
Use of Conjunctions............................................................................................................4
Imagery ..................................................................................................................................... 5
Audience Analysis...........................................................................................................................5
Demo gr aphics ........................................................................................................................... 5
Audience Size............................................................................................................................6
Degree of Political Affiliation...................................................................................................6
Occasion and Purpose.....................................................................................................................6
Infor mation .................................................................................................................... ............ 7
Persua sion ................................................................................................................................. 7
Entert ai nment .................................................................................................................. .......... 8
Time and Length..............................................................................................................................8
Time of Day..............................................................................................................................9
How Many Words?....................................................................................................................9
Speech Research..............................................................................................................................9
Speechwriting Resources...............................................................................................................10
Policy Resources.....................................................................................................................10
Additional Resources...............................................................................................................11
Speech Preparation........................................................................................................................12
Building Blocks: Suggested Principles...................................................................................12
The Speech Outline.................................................................................................................13
Thematic Clarity......................................................................................................................13
St ruct ure ...................................................................................................................... ............ 14
Three-Part Structure..........................................................................................................14
Techniques of Persuasion..................................................................................................14
Attent ion-Problem-Solution .............................................................................................. 15
This or Nothing.................................................................................................................15
St yl e.......................................................................................................................... ............... 15
Contemporary Style and Tone...........................................................................................15
Pitfalls to be Avoided........................................................................................................16
Punctuation..............................................................................................................................16





Grammar and Syntax...............................................................................................................17
Speech Presentation.......................................................................................................................18
Analysis of Lincoln’s Farewell to His Neighbors.........................................................................19
General Observations....................................................................................................................19
Author Contact Information..........................................................................................................21






“Rhetoric,” wrote Aristotle, “is the power of determining in a particular case what are the
available means of persuasion.” This report reviews some effective means for the rhetoric of
persuasive communication in speeches written by congressional staff for Senators and
Representatives. By speeches, this report means draft statements prepared for oral delivery by
Members. Such speeches are often prepared under the pressure of deadlines that leave minimal
time for extensive revision. Moreover, they must often be drafted in whole or part for Members
who may have little opportunity to edit and amend them. The burdens of public office (as well as
of campaigning) and the insistent demand for speeches of every kind for a variety of occasions
require some degree of reliance on speechwriters, a reliance that is heightened by the limitations
of time and the urgencies of the media.
A speech thus “ghostwritten” should nevertheless reflect the intention and even the style of the
speaker. The best ghostwriters are properly invisible; they subordinate themselves to the speaker
in such a way that the final product is effectively personalized in the process of actual
communication. The only ways to achieve or even approach this ideal are practice and
experience. This report seeks to provide some guidance for congressional staff on the principles
and practice of speechwriting. The suggestions offered herein, when combined with practice,
attention to audience and occasion, and, most importantly, the Member’s attitudes, convictions,
and style, can help create a speech that can be a “seamless garment” when delivered by the
Member.


Writing effective speeches requires a constant awareness of the distinction between the written
and the spoken word: the speechwriter must learn to “write aloud.” While the best speeches read
as well as they sound, the novice speechwriter should give priority to the ear and not the eye. His
or her speech must be written to be heard, not read.
This means that easy intelligibility should be a paramount concern, so that the listening span is
not strained. One of the first rules of the speechwriting profession is that a sentence written to be
heard should be simple, direct, and short. When the speechwriter “writes aloud,” George Orwell’s
advice to cut out any word that can possibly be cut is helpful, so long as the resulting effect is 2
clarity, and not verbal shorthand. Ciceronian oratory on the one hand and Dick-and-Jane
simplicity on the other are extremes to be avoided. The speechwriter thus faces the challenge of
crafting words that convey the speaker’s meaning clearly, but that also draw on the rich nuance
and texture of spoken English.

1 This report revises and expands an earlier report of the same title prepared by Charles H. Whittier, Specialist in
Religion and Public Policy, former Government Division.
2 George Orwell, “Politics and the English Language,” in Shooting an Elephant and Other Essays (New York: Harcourt
Brace, 1950).





The average spoken sentence runs from eight to 16 words; anything longer is considered more
difficult for listeners to follow by ear, and according to one expert, may be too long for the 3
average listener to absorb and analyze quickly. By comparison, written sentences of up to 30 4
words are easily understood by average readers. Given these generally accepted limitations, what
devices are available to the writer to make more complex sentences and speech wording
accessible to the listener? Complex sentences can be clarified by repeating key words and using
simple connections. By numerous rhetorical techniques, the speaker states, restates, and states
again in different ways, the central themes of the speech.
Repetition with variation is a basic speechwriting tool used by many of the greatest speakers to
emphasize key elements while avoiding monotony. Some examples follow.
• Martin Luther King’s “I have a dream” speech was a striking example of this
technique, using that phrase to introduce a series of his visions for a better future.
• Lincoln at Gettysburg emphasized the significance of the day’s events by restating
the solemnity of the occasion in not fewer than three variations: “We cannot dedicate, we
cannot consecrate, we cannot hallow this ground, ...”
• Similarly, Winston Churchill’s World War II speeches used repetition with variation
to build a powerful climax: “We shall fight in France and on the seas and oceans, we shall
fight with growing confidence and growing strength in the air. We shall defend our island
whatever the cost may be; we shall fight on the beaches and landing grounds, in fields, in
streets and on the hills, ... we shall never surrender.”
• Franklin D. Roosevelt’s 1937 “One third of a Nation” speech imparted a sense of
urgency by his deliberate repetition of a “here are” construction to describe conditions in
the country, followed again and again with “now”:
Here is one-third of a nation ill-nourished, ill-clad, ill-housed—NOW.
Here are thousands upon thousands of farmers wondering whether next
year’s prices will meet their mortgage interest—NOW.
Here are thousands upon thousands of men and women laboring for long
hours in factories for inadequate pay—NOW.
Another venerable rhetorical device is the use of cadence and balance in the spoken word. This is
a part of speechwriting where the speaker and the writer need cooperation to ensure success. The
tradition of public speaking in the English language owes much to the poetic tradition, which was
originally an oral tradition. As one observer noted, “the language of the speech should also be
poetic—replete with alliteration, metaphor, and other figures of speech. Such adornments, far

3 Edward Bernays, quoted in Mary G. Gotschall, “The Lost Art of Speechmaking, Campaigns and Elections, vol. 14,
June-July, 1993, p. 48.
4 William E. Wiethoff, Writing the Speech (Greenwood, IN: Alistair Press, 1994), p. 15.





from being superfluous, enhance meaning and emphasize relationships among ideas.”5 As
difficult to define as to achieve, cadence and balance impart movement and harmonious effect to
any speech. Essentially a matter of ordering groups of words (and ideas) into rhythmic patterns,
cadence and balance can be attained by such classical rhetorical devices as the ones described
below. Do not be put off by the classic Greek names of some of these rhetorical devices; in
practice we use them naturally in conversation and writing every day.
The grouping of words into patterns of three can lead to a memorable effect, provided the device
is not overused. Some notable examples from classic oratory include “Veni, vidi, vici”; “Never ...
was so much owed by so many to so few”; “The kingdom, the power, and the glory ...”; “I have
not sought, I do not seek, I repudiate the support of ...”; “one third of a nation ill-clad, ill-
nourished, ill-housed....”
The linkage of similar words or ideas in a balanced construction that repeatedly uses the same
grammatical form to convey parallel or coordinated ideas: “Bigotry has no head and cannot think;
no heart and cannot feel;” “Charity beareth all things, believeth all things, hopeth all things,
endureth all things.”
The repetition of initial sounds in a series of words to give emphasis. For instance, “We need to
return to that old-fashioned notion of competition—where substance, not subsidies, determines
the winner,” or, “... the nattering nabobs of negativism....”
This is the repetition of the same word or words at the beginning of successive clauses or
sentences. Churchill’s famous defiance of Hitler, “We shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on
the landing grounds ...,” which has been previously cited, is one of the most famous examples.
A common form of parallel structure comparing and contrasting dissimilar elements. For instance,
“... give me liberty, or give me death.”; “Ask not what your country can do for you—ask what
you can do for your country.”; “To some generations much is given; from others, much is
demanded ...”; “A great empire and little minds go ill together.”; “It was the best of times, it was
the worst of times. It was the age of wisdom, it was the age of folly.”; “If Puritanism was not the
godfather to Capitalism, then it was godson.”

5 Judith Humphrey, “Writing Professional Speeches,” Vital Speeches of the Day, vol. 54, Mar. 15, 1988, p. 343.





This technique involves more than alternating longer sentences with short ones. The writer may
employ either periodic sentences, that is, those in which the main clause comes at the end, or
loose sentences, in which the main clause is presented at or near the beginning, to be followed by
other main or subordinate clauses. Sentence variation also includes the use of such devices as
those described below.
“Is peace a rash system?” “Is life so dear or peace so sweet as to be purchased at the price of
chains and slavery?” The speaker leads the audience to the conclusion he hopes they will draw by
asking a question that makes his point, and that he intends to answer himself, either immediately,
with a flourish, or at greater length during his remarks, through patient exposition.
“Dear money. Lower credit. Less enterprise in business and manufacture. A reduced home
demand. Therefore, reduced output to meet it.” The speaker dramatizes the situation by reducing
it to a stark declaration, which he renders more striking by pausing to let the facts sink in after
each sentence fragment.
“With what dignity and courage they perished in that day.” This classic rhetorical practice, once
more widely used, seeks to embellish the general flow of words, much like an ornament or a
musical flourish. It also helps give a particular sentence special emphasis by causing it to stand
out from others by its unusual form.
With this device, the speaker comes to a complete stop in his remarks, using the ensuing moment
of silence to concentrate the listeners’ attention on his next phrase. “My obligation as President is
historic; it is clear; yes, it is inescapable.” Even periodic sentences, if used with care, repeating
the “suspended” subject or verb before modifying phrases or clauses can contribute to the effect:
“Thus did he prove to be a leader who—victorious in battle, magnanimous in victory, skilled in
the arts of peace—was able, in the face of his most determined foes ...”
Repeating key words and using simple connective conjunctions (and, for, because, but) can make
many complex sentences more easily intelligible to the ear by breaking them up into “bite size”
segments. For instance, “Be a craftsmen in speech that thou mayest be strong, for the strength of
one is the tongue, and speech is mightier than all fighting.”





No speech will sound fresh and vivid if it is not animated by imaginative imagery, by metaphor in
its many forms: “the hatred of entrenched greed”; “America will always stand for liberty”;
“Democracy is the healthful lifeblood which circulates through the veins and arteries of society
...”; “Whether in chains or in laurels, liberty knows nothing but victories.”
Extended metaphors or analogies, comparing similarities in different things, should be used with
care so that the principal subject will not be lost in the image. Two or more metaphors in a single
sentence or thought can be safely ventured only by the most experienced writers—“To take arms
against a sea of troubles”—without incurring ridicule (as in the famous—and perhaps
apocryphal—example attributed to the newspaper Pravda, the onetime propaganda organ of the
Soviet Communist Party: “The fascist octopus has sung its swan-song”).
Above all, in the spoken word there must be an element of identity and rapport with the listener,
whether the speaker uses a “natural” conversational tone or a more oratorical style. Effective
speechwriting for Congress is not a branch of “creative writing.” Its “rules” are meant to foster
clarity of expression, whatever the occasion and purpose of any given speech. Mere clarity is not
enough for persuasive rhetoric, however. Indeed, there are times when clarity, brevity, and the like
are not appropriate. The issues, because of their import and complexity, may preclude such
treatment; similarly, the gravity or delicate political nature of the occasion may call for some
measure of deliberate ambiguity. The best speechwriter will take into account the context of the
speech and the speaker’s personality, the image that is projected—that is, the speaker whom the
audience sees and hears. The section on speech analysis in this report attempts a closer look at
Lincoln’s great Farewell Address at Springfield, illustrating many of the principles considered in
this report.

What Jefferson Bates called “audience analysis” is probably the single most important factor to
be considered in writing every speech: know your listeners, and you will have a much better 6
chance of connecting with them.
Bates and others list a number of criteria useful in audience analysis, including, among others: 7
age; gender; culture; education; profession ; size of the audience; and affiliation. Age is
obviously an important factor; high school students, young parents, and senior citizens have
different levels of life experience, different interests reflecting the challenges they face at their
particular stages of life, and, to some extent, they even speak different languages. Although
gender differences in societal roles are less pronounced than a generation ago, some believe that
certain persistent disparities of viewpoint between many men and women on some topics persist.
With respect to “culture,” William Wiethoff, in Writing the Speech, states that it “has escaped a
standard or preferred definition. Speechwriters, however, may envision culture as the race,

6 Jefferson Bates, Writing with Precision (Washington: Acropolis Books, 1985), pp. 82-85.
7 Wiethoff, Writing the Speech, p. 22.





customs, and religion shared by members of an audience.”8 The factors of education, profession,
and income level can be a pitfall for the unwary speechwriter. Never confuse education with
intelligence, or professional status and worldly success with moral superiority or virtue, or
modest means and educational attainment with the opposite.
The writer must be sensitive to these varying frames of reference found in an audience. Draft
remarks should be familiar, sympathetic, and topical, without being condescending. They must, as
always, be phrased in a way that is natural for the Member; it is painfully obvious to an audience
if a Member is not comfortable in his role or with his words.
The size of an audience is another important factor in preparing a speech. A large audience and a
formal occasion usually call for greater formality in language and delivery, lengthier remarks, and
greater reliance on some of the classical rhetorical practices cited in this report. By comparison,
many Members will require only talking points for a town meeting, and will almost certainly
speak extemporaneously in still more intimate gatherings. In the age of cable and satellite
television, and Webcasts, the Member is often asked to address what may appear to be a very
small group of listeners physically present at the broadcast venue; at the same time, however,
many others, perhaps thousands, may be viewing from other locations, or from their homes. It is
the writer’s task to craft remarks that simultaneously take into consideration the people physically
present in the studio or location, and those who may be watching from home or other locations.
Speechwriters must also condition their words to the degree of political affiliation, or lack
thereof, in the intended audience. A gathering of the party faithful is usually ready for some “red
meat.” An audience consisting of a non-partisan citizen’s group, such as the League of Women
Voters, is almost certainly not. The writer must also always remember that, while the Member is
affiliated with one political party, and comes from a particular part of the state or district, he or
she represents all the people, and gives due attention and respect to the legitimate views and
aspirations of all constituents.

Another of the speechwriter’s tasks is to assess the occasion at which the Member has been asked
to speak and tailor the remarks accordingly. In contemporary society, the delivery of remarks by
public figures is an expected element in almost every secular public ceremony, and at many
religious services. The speechwriter must ensure that the occasion and the speech agree with one
another, in both tone and content.
For instance, Veterans’ Day and Memorial Day are among the most solemn public holidays in the
calendar. For these two events, the speechwriter should focus on themes of commemoration,
service, and sacrifice. The atmosphere should appropriately be both somber, and hopeful: “their

8 Ibid., p. 23.





sacrifice led to a better, more secure life for those who followed them.” High school and college
commencements are of a different genre altogether. The occasion may demand inspirational
remarks, but as one observer noted, “I’ve heard speakers ... deliver a tedious, solemn policy
address at graduation ceremonies in which the graduates and families just want to hit the exits and 9
have a good time.” Conversely, a formal address to a learned society will differ dramatically
from friendly remarks at a neighborhood picnic, town meeting, or retirement home. Simply put,
the writer should exercise common sense in preparing remarks appropriate in tone and content to
both the audience and the occasion.
Another useful consideration for congressional staff is to plan the delivery of substantive remarks
on substantive occasions. If the Member is scheduled to announce a major policy statement or
initiative, it should be delivered in commensurate surroundings, and on occasions when media
coverage will be adequate. Timing is also a serious factor; speeches delivered at mid-morning, at
lunchtime, or early afternoon at the latest, are far more likely to be covered that same day by local
TV news.
The purpose of a speech and the occasion at which it will be delivered are closely related. Most
frequently, the latter will govern the former. William E. Wiethoff suggests a “purpose” template 10
for speechwriters in Writing the Speech. In it he establishes three categories of purpose:
information, persuasion, and entertainment.
These speeches seek to convey facts or information to the audience. The speaker first identifies
the information that is about to be presented, seeking to link the new facts with others the
listeners may already be aware of. Next, the speaker elaborates on the details of the information
just conveyed, while avoiding a level of complexity and detail that would confuse the audience.
Finally, the speaker draws together the facts and ideas related earlier, ideally recapitulating the
main points in order to fix them in the listener’s memory.
The persuasive speech is a two-edged sword: it can seek to instill in the listeners either the
acceptance of, or at least a more favorable opinion toward, a particular condition, fact, or concept.
This variant is described as advocacy. Conversely, a speech may also attempt to change an
audience’s impressions, opinions, or most ambitiously, their convictions. Wiethoff calls this
dissent, and asserts that it is more difficult than advocacy, since the speaker faces the burden of 11
proving to the listeners that what they have heretofore accepted should be modified or rejected.
In both cases, the writer must marshal the arguments that will convince the audience.

9 Robert A. Rackleff, “The Art of Speechwriting,” Vital Speeches of the Day, vol. 54, Mar. 1, 1988, p. 311.
10 Wiethoff, Writing the Speech, pp. 34-42.
11 Ibid., p. 39.





Wiethoff’s third category of speech purpose is entertainment. A great percentage, perhaps a
majority, of Member speeches will fall into this category. The choice of title for this group may be
misleading, however. These are not necessarily frivolous occasions, and they are not unimportant
to the life and people of a town or village, students at a school, or members of a club who
constitute the audience for such remarks. Speeches in this category serve the vital function of
reinforcing the common ties and experiences that bind communities together and help reinforce
the vitality of civic life in America. As Wiethoff notes:
These speeches are delivered during ceremonies or rituals that are significant in themselves.
They do not need clarification in order to be understood. They do not need proof of their
importance. Instead, on these occasions people share an expectation of what will happen, and 12
they are dissatisfied if the events do not take place as expected.
“Entertainment” speeches may be solemn in nature, such as a Memorial Day address, or
celebratory, such as remarks at the opening of a new school, library, or child-care facility. They
remind citizens of their joint identity as members of a community; these events, seemingly
everyday, or even trite, are actually vital expressions of civic life. The Member’s role as a
community leader and spokesperson on these occasions should not be underestimated; it is a great
honor for him or her to deliver remarks at these community rites, and a congressional
speechwriter should devote talent and originality to them.
Obviously, the three purpose categories cited here are not necessarily mutually exclusive; in order
to convince an audience, a speaker often needs to combine persuasion with information.
Similarly, while some types of remarks are intended purely for entertainment, such as a celebrity
roast, the careful speechwriter will always seek to entertain audiences in order to capture and
retain their attention.

How long should a Member speak? The answer to this fundamental question of speechwriting,
like so many others, depends on a wide range of factors. Audience analysis and occasion have
been previously noted, but the habits and attitudes of the speaker must also be taken into
consideration.
The natural inclinations of the Member must be examined. Is the Member a person of few words,
or is he or she a good talker? Does the Member stick to the text, or lay it aside to share anecdotes,
personal reminiscences, or even humor, with the audience? These and other related questions can
be answered only through experience on the part of the congressional speechwriter. Learning the
Member’s style and preferences will result in a better product that communicates more
effectively.

12 Ibid.





Time of day should be considered by the writer. In the morning, people are relatively fresh, and
are generally better prepared physically to listen attentively. By late afternoon, or after a
luncheon, however, the audience may need to be stimulated, either by coffee or by lively remarks.
Finally, lengthy after-dinner remarks should almost never be inflicted, especially on a paying
audience. The potential auditors are full, tired, and ready to go home. It’s best to give them their
wish as quickly as possible.
Finally comes the classic question: how many words should the speechwriter prepare? Once
again, the factors of audience, occasion, Member preference, and time of day should be
considered. The question of length of time, however, must be dealt with at some point. A number
of classic speech authorities suggest that in most cases 20 minutes should be the upward limit.
Conventional wisdom often holds that most listeners tune out, perceptibly or not, after that 13
period. Ritual or pro forma speeches, such as occasional remarks at schools, churches, or public
functions where the Member is a guest, but not the main attraction, benefit from brevity, perhaps
being limited to five to 10 minutes. Although substantive public policy speeches may merit
greater length, in modern America, only presidential inaugural and State of the Union messages
seem to exceed the 20-minute limit regularly, with the latter often weighing in at over an hour.
The question of pace is also important; is the Member a fast talker? Different speakers exhibit
considerable variety in pace, ranging from 115 to 175 words a minute. Once again, the
speechwriter will factor these personal differences into his work. As a benchmark, however, an
often-cited rule-of-thumb is that the average 20-minute speech contains about 2,600 words, or,
about 130 per minute. Most word processing programs will provide a total document word count 14
as part of their spell check feature.
Having a fixed time stimulates careful preparation. Both a time limit and notes or text help guard
against logorrhea, or excessive verbiage. Time limits also encourage speakers not to be overly
comprehensive, saying everything there is to be said on the speech topic. This is a temptation
difficult to resist, but a speech is, by nature, a precis or digest. Excessive complexity or verbiage
are capable of transforming an effective speech into something ponderous and exhausting.
Jefferson’s sharp judgment of 1824 applies today with equal force: “Amplification is the vice of
modern oratory.... Speeches measured by the hour die with the hour.”

Theme, audience, time, place, occasion and purpose—once these are settled, the speechwriter’s
next concern is to gather ideas, facts, examples, illustrations, quotations, and humor, in short,
whatever is needed to give substance, character, and interest to the speech. There is no shortcut
for researching a speech, although a number of resources can speed the process.

13 Kenneth Roman and Joel Raphaelson, Writing That Works (New York: Harper and Row, 1981), p. 73.
14 For instance, in WordPerfect 12.0, click on “File; select thenProperties,” and then “Information to obtain a word
count. In Word, on theTools menu clickWord Count.”






Congressional speechwriters often consult the Congressional Research Service first when
preparing a draft statement or an address for a Member. CRS offers a range of speechwriting
resources for the use of congressional staff, many of which are available from the CRS Home
Page, at http://www.crs.gov.
To find this report and other speechwriting resources, go to the CRS Home Page and click on the
tab on the right, “Reference Desk” http://www.crs.gov/reference/general/reference.shtml. On the
left side of the page you will find a link to “Speechwriting & Holidays/Commemorative Events”
http://www.crs.gov/reference/general/speechwriting.shtml. This page provides links to
commemorative speech materials, many of them focusing on major holidays, such as the Fourth
of July and Labor Day, and month-long celebrations like Black History Month and Native
American Heritage Month. Information is provided on the history of and related facts about the
holiday or celebration. The speechwriting page also accesses sources providing practical tips for
writing a speech, quotations, the full text of selected speeches and United States historical
documents and writing guides.
Other sources of information on public policy, reference resources, appropriations information,
legal resources and many external links conveniently organized by topic are also available on the
CRS Home Page. From the “Reference Desk,” you can access “Basic Resources for Daily Work
in Congressional Offices”: government directories, encyclopedias, statistical sources, dictionaries,
grammar guides, maps, and other online reference links. There is also a “Legislative Reference
Source” page with links to facts about Congress including information on membership,
committees, rules and schedules.
Providing timely, accurate, and unbiased information and analysis on current policy questions is
the most important function of the Congressional Research Service. The congressional
speechwriter can access the CRS Home Page to garner analysis on current policy issues. The page
links to the Current Legislative Issues, such as the Economy, Homeland Security,
Internet/Telecom, and Iraq. These are further divided into subcategories, with links to the full text
of CRS reports, containing comprehensive and multi-disciplinary analysis and information. They
are available exclusively to congressional staff from the CRS Home Page and provide a ready
resource to the congressional speechwriter.
In addition to the Current Legislative Issues on the CRS Home page, on the left side of the page is
a link to “Featured Products.” The first Featured Product link is entitled “Floor Agenda: CRS
Products.” For a speechwriter who wishes to write about recent bills scheduled for floor action,
this is an invaluable resource. This link accesses CRS reports about legislation that is scheduled
for floor action that week. The link to the “Appropriations Status Table” accesses the latest status
of and links to appropriation bills, as well as committee and CRS reports.
Congressional staff who wish to discuss any policy-related issue with the appropriate CRS
analyst can call the Inquiry Section at 7-5700, to place a request or to ask for a briefing by an
analyst. Alternatively, to find out how to contact a CRS expert from the Home Page, click on the
“Contact Expert” tab. A request for analysis or research assistance may also be faxed to the





Inquiry Section at 7-6745 or may be placed from the CRS Home Page by clicking on the “Place a
Request” tab.
The CRS Hotline at 7-7100 is available for immediate ready reference requests, such as questions
about presidential quotes on the virtues of the Constitution or perhaps variations in the Consumer
Price Index for the past five years. In addition, the LaFollette Congressional Reading Room (LM-

204, James Madison Memorial Building, the Library of Congress), Rayburn Research Center (B-


335, Rayburn House of Representatives Office Building), and Senate Research Center (SR-B07,


Russell Senate Office Building) provide a full range of in-person assistance, including many
standard reference sources and CRS products. They are staffed full-time by information
professionals available to assist you.
Legislative information is also available from commercial publications such as CQ Weekly, the
annual Congressional Quarterly Almanac, and the same publisher’s eight-volume history of
major legislation and national issues since 1945, Congress and the Nation. A journal of similar
content but with greater emphasis on executive branch activities is National Journal, which
appears weekly.
There are sites on the Web that may be helpful to the speechwriter.
American Rhetoric
http://www.ame ricanrhetoric.com/index.htm
This is an Index to an expanding database of over 5000 full text, audio and video versions of
public speeches, debates and interviews. This site has a useful set of communication links and is
updated every two weeks.
Speechwr it er.com
ht t p: // wwwt hes pe ec hwri te r.c om
This website contains many links to research sites, statistics, encyclopedias, business links,
current events, anecdotes, quotes, speeches, toasts and biographies.
The Advanced Public Speaking Institute
http://wwwpublic-s peaking.org/ public-s peaking-articles.htm
This website has 43 articles on the use of humor in a speech.
Additional helpful resources may include books on speechwriting. Writing Great Speeches:
Professional Techniques You Can Use ( Essence of Public Speaking Series), by Alan M.
Pearlman, has endorsements from two public speaking groups, the National Speakers Association
and Toastmasters International. You may also wish to consult a work by Richard Dowis, The Lost
Art of the Great Speech: How to Write One—How to Deliver It. The author, a former journalist
and public relations executive, discusses the content, the memorability, rule of three, and other
speechwriting methods. Finally, Choosing Powerful Words: Eloquence that Works (Essence of
Public Speaking Series), was written by Ronald H. Carpenter, a professor of English and
communications. These books may be requested from the Loan Division of the Library of
Congress, telephone 707-5441.
There are other basic materials with which every speechwriter should be familiar. These include a
good standard dictionary (spell check is not foolproof, and has a rather limited vocabulary). The





preferable dictionary is prescriptive as well as descriptive, that is, it prescribes or recommends
usage in addition to providing descriptions or definitions. A thesaurus, such as Roget’s, published
in numerous editions since 1852, or J.I. Rodale’s Synonym Finder, various editions since 1961, is
useful in finding the right word and generally superior to the thesaurus feature offered with most
word processing programs. For quotations, consult the standard Bartlett’s Familiar Quotations in
any one of its many editions, or Respectfully Quoted, a quotation dictionary compiled by the
Congressional Research Service. Annual almanacs, such as the Information Please Almanac and
the World Almanac, are often essential for quick reference.
Literary and religious sources include the works of Shakespeare in any readable edition and the
English Bible, especially the King James or Authorized Version. Aside from its obvious spiritual
aspects, the King James Bible is important for both its literary quality and its tremendous
influence on spoken and written English.
Access to some standard encyclopedia, such as Americana, World Book or Britannica, is also
helpful for fact checking and general information. Chase’s Calendar of Events is a useful annual
guide to special observances throughout the nation. A wealth of facts, statistics, and data useful in
speech preparation can be found in the annual U.S. Government publication Statistical Abstract of
the United States, published annually. For sample speeches on many topics of contemporary
interest, the speechwriter may wish to consult Vital Speeches of the Day, published twice
monthly, available through EBSCO Host and other Internet sources. It provides examples of
speeches delivered by recognized public figures on topical questions and major issues and events
of the day, and is annually indexed by author and topic. All these sources are available in the La
Follette Congressional Reading Room, and most are also available in House and Senate office
building reference centers.
Daily newspapers are a familiar, if neglected, resource for speeches; a dedicated speechwriter will
read or skim several each day, noting and saving background items that may prove to be useful
later. Both national and hometown papers should be included. Other useful sources include
weekly news magazines and more specialized journals that cover public policy issues. Here,
again, the advent of the Internet provides new sources of information valuable to the
congressional speechwriter: home district newspaper web sites may be regularly scanned for local
news on issues and events of interest to the Member. These are usually posted online the day they
are published, and almost always well in advance of postal delivery of the printed product.

Certain general principles may be useful to guide the congressional speechwriter in choice of
content and style:
• Quotations and humorous anecdotes or remarks are like spices, and should be used
with discrimination, mindful of good taste and effectiveness. Speeches overloaded with
quotations and anecdotes can sink from their own weight.
• Pseudo-quotations should be avoided. Never use a quotation that cannot be verified
in an authoritative source.





• Unless a writer is gifted with lightness of touch, self-deprecating or gentle humor is
usually more effective than satire or ridicule.
• Jokes aimed at people’s personal lives or at religious and ethnic groups are invariably
offensive, regardless of the speaker’s motives. Avoid them.
• Statistics should be used with care and moderation. Like the points in an outline, they
are better alluded to in context than cited in tedious detail. A speech filled with statistics
becomes a statistical abstract, not a speech.
• When selecting material, the responsible speechwriter will take great care to quote
accurately and give full credit for whatever is borrowed outright. Plagiarism is often
illegal and always unethical. On the other hand, it is entirely proper to adapt existing
materials to one’s own purpose in preparing a new speech for any occasion. As Thomas
Jefferson wrote in response to accusations that he had plagiarized parts of the Declaration
of Independence from other works, “I did not consider it as any part of my charge to
invent new ideas altogether and to offer no sentiment which had ever been expressed
before.” Straining after originality, which has been defined by an anonymous wit as
“imitation not yet detected,” can ruin the best of speeches.
• Finally, the seasoned speechwriter soon learns to recycle the best parts of previous
efforts, to save time and effort, and also to preserve a particularly fine turn of phrase.
The task of actually writing the speech, once the preliminaries are completed, will be greatly
facilitated in most cases by the use of an outline. The novice speechwriter may be tempted to
dispense with this device, on the grounds that it adds a time consuming extra step to a process
that is often constrained by tight deadlines. On the other hand, it forces the writer to plan and
organize his thoughts, to determine in advance what he intends to say, and to begin at the
beginning.
A speech outline generally is not nearly as detailed as an outline for an academic work, such as a
journal article, or even a research paper. The outline serves as a skeleton, a framework to carry
the flesh and blood of the fully developed speech. At the same time, this skeleton should
eventually be invisible, clothed in delivery with ideas and emotions, and as simple as possible;
beware of explicitly enumerating too many points or topics. Outlines may be written in topics, or
key sentences, or in complete thoughts, so long as there is an orderly sequence.
The frugal writer will retain speech outlines, since they can easily be reworked for future efforts.
In whole or in parts, these can be placed in folders in a word processing program, or written out
into a looseleaf notebook binder or even on index cards. From any of these media, the outlines
can be quickly cut, rearranged, or added to as future occasions may require. President Ronald
Reagan, for example, was legendary for his expert use and reuse of note cards that included facts
and themes he sought to emphasize in various speeches.
Throughout the speech, the writer ought to be constantly asking: “What is it I am trying to say?”
and, after it is written: “Have I, in fact, said it clearly, succinctly, and well?” Every speech seeks
in some way to move an audience, to win support, to motivate, to convince, perhaps to inspire, or





simply to entertain. Adhere to the central theme or idea while addressing it in different ways,
much in the manner that good sentences are constructed for a paragraph.
The arrangement of ideas and themes should follow a logical progression. Each fact establishes a
certain point, which leads to the speaker’s next point, and so forth, ultimately climaxing with the
thematic conclusion. While it is more dramatic to gain an audience’s attention by opening a
speech with a grand conclusion, be sure that the initial dramatic assertion is followed up by the
essential process of weaving the argument the Member seeks to make.
Do not try to say too much, particularly when the speech is intended as the vehicle for a major
announcement or initiative. The most memorable presidential inaugural addresses have been 15
those that set a single theme, or coherent group of related themes. Stick to no more than three
major points, rather than attempting to say a little something about everything. Anything more
risks running afoul of Churchill’s famous comment concerning a bland dessert: “This pudding has
no theme.”
Nearly every speech will have a basic three-part structure of introduction, body, and conclusion.
An arresting introduction should lead into an emphatic statement of the main theme or themes.
The argument that follows seeks to elaborate and develop the theme convincingly and
effectively—that is, without too much detail. The central theme is restated in the closing
peroration. One helpful approach for overcoming the feeling of word fright (what can I say and
how?) is to write the speech in reverse: begin with the conclusion, which should summarize the
central message, while abridging and restating whatever goes before. If the introduction sets the
tone and establishes initial appeal or rapport, the closing communicates the final effect and is
more likely to be remembered. Working backward is one way of imparting unity, coherence, and
emphasis to the speech as a whole.
There are many techniques available for the actual writing of a speech. Almost all speeches
delivered by, or on behalf of, Members of Congress, even those for ceremonial or pro forma
occasions, will have a certain political character because of the Member’s representative function,
and also because of the way in which his or her office is perceived. In the rhetorical context,
political means persuasive, including the expression of personal interest and concern, assuring
and reassuring, conveying the Member’s identity with each audience, and so creating a
community of interest and trust. Three kinds of persuasive techniques are usually distinguished:
• the appeal to reasonableness: “Surely Democrats and Republicans alike can agree
that there is no excuse today for hunger in the world’s richest nation....”

15 For a selection of presidential inaugural addresses, see: Jefferson’s first, 1801; Lincoln’s second, 1865; Roosevelt’s
first, 1933; Kennedy, 1961; and Reagan’s first, 1981. These and all others are available online at the CRS Home Page
at http://www.crs.gov/. Click on the “Reference Desktab and select “Speechwriting & Holidays/Commemorative
Events.”





• the appeal to emotion: “Can we, as a nation, close our eyes to the spectacle of
millions of children going to bed hungry every night...?”
• the ethical appeal (that is, to the character of the audience): “our historic traditions of
decency and generosity demand that we face squarely the question of hunger in
A merica....”
All three approaches may be used in any given speech.
One popular option for developing a speech is the “attention-problem-solution” method,
especially for longer speeches of a non-partisan character. Useful for many different occasions,
this method begins by stimulating the interest of the audience, usually with attention-grabbing
examples of a problem that needs to be recognized and confronted. The speaker then moves to
define the “problem” situation, and concludes with the proposed “best” solution, presented so as
to win listener support.
Another option, the “this-or-nothing” method, advocates a policy mainly by presenting and
refuting proposed alternatives as inadequate or worse. It lends itself well to partisan occasions or
to stirring those already convinced. In every case the speaker seeks to reinforce and strengthen his
principal ideas as they are unfolded in the speech. Prior audience analysis and subject preparation
will often help the speech “write itself.”
No speaker should ever apologize for his or her presence, or for the content of the speech. If it
truly deserves apologies, it is better left unsaid. Further, a prudent speaker, rightly wary of the
impulse to speak “off-the-cuff,” will make certain that “extemporaneous” or “impromptu”
remarks are not unprepared. For most speakers it is also better not to memorize a speech (unless
one has a gift for it), since memory is fallible and elusive at best.
The congressional speechwriter should not shrink from commonly accepted contemporary usage:
the all-day speeches and obscure classical allusions of Daniel Webster and Henry Clay make
wonderful reading, but they are history. The development of public address systems, radio, and,
finally, the “cool” medium of television, and the perhaps even more intimate medium of the
webcast have combined with other social changes to turn down the volume, both in decibels and
emotions, of public speaking in the United States, for better or worse eliminating its more
histrionic qualities.
The accepted style of contemporary oratory is generally low key, casual without being offensively
familiar, and delivered directly to the audience in a conversational tone and volume. It puts the
audience at ease and helps promote psychological bonding between listeners and speaker. The
speaker is perceived as a neighbor or friend, as well as an elected official. This is, of course, what
every Senator and Representative strives to be. Perhaps the first, and certainly one of the most





effective, practitioners of this art was President Franklin Delano Roosevelt, in his radio “fireside
chats.” His calm, reassuring voice and homey language revolutionized the bond of
communication between the American people and their Presidents. It could be said that FDR
spoke “with,” rather than “to,” the people, a standard to which Members can honestly aspire
today. Once again, certain exceptions are allowed, but these are generally reserved largely to the
President, or for only the most formal occasions.
Use natural words and phrases in a speech; let the sentences flow conversationally. It is helpful
for some writers, time permitting, to prepare a first draft in longhand, shaping the sentences
slowly, speaking aloud the phrases they intend to use.
The first person is perfectly acceptable in modern public discourse, and when combined with
other personal pronouns—remember to avoid “I” strain—it can help connect listener to speaker
and create a sense of community within the audience. While the first person singular is sometimes
deprecated, it is its excessive use that should be avoided. Conversely, speakers should avoid
referring to themselves in the first person plural (we) or the third person singular (he or she). The
former has been reserved to monarchs, and is considered archaic in modern speech. The latter too
often conveys a sense of excessive self importance to listeners. For instance, a Member should
think twice before referring to himself or herself in the third person singular: “Dave (or Mary)
Smith thinks the problem of hunger is the greatest challenge facing America today.”
Writers should generally use simple, declarative sentences, preferably in active voice, when
making important statements of fact, assertion, or opinion. Use of the passive voice should not be
dismissed out of hand, however; it is sometimes the more desirable form, and can lend grace and
variety to the speaker’s flow of words that stimulates the listener. It is excessive use that should
be avoided. Similarly, exclusive use of the active voice can impart a choppy, juvenile cadence to
even a content-rich speech.
Just as there are points to emphasize in every speech, serving as clear transitions or aural
signposts for paragraphs (“secondly,” “nevertheless,” “finally,” “accordingly,” “as a result,” “in
spite of,” “as I have said,” etc.), so there are things to avoid, and they are more numerous. While
they are discussed in full in many reference works, they include:
• jargon and trendy neologisms: “impact” used as a verb, “stakeholders,” “incentivize,”
“outside the box,” et al.;
• redundancy resulting from excess verbiage, not deliberate restatement;
• mannerisms that may distract the listener, and trite phrases or cliches, with the
exception previously mentioned, monotony of style or pace, and, in general, language
inappropriate to the audience and occasion.
Punctuation is crucial to an effective speech; it helps to clarify the delivery of the spoken word.
Good punctuation in English, apart from a few basic elements, is less a matter of inflexible rules
than of purpose and style, particularly where speeches are concerned. Historically there have been
two broad traditions of punctuation: syntactical—that is, guided by syntax or grammatical





construction; and elocutionary—deriving from the rhythm and pace of actual speech. One writer
has further distinguished three methods of punctuating:
• by structure or logic to indicate the sense of what is being said;
• by the rhythm of word order and intended meaning—a subtle use best avoided by
novice speech writers;
• and by respiration—that is, by the physical ease of natural speech, which assumes 16
that what is read is really spoken.
This last method, essentially the same as the elocutionary style, is the most widely used and
certainly the most appropriate for speeches. In short, punctuate according to the ear and not the
eye. This also means punctuating for the lungs: give the Member time to breathe! A long and
convoluted sentence (something to be avoided in general) can leave the Member literally gasping
for breath as he or she concludes it. A useful practice for congressional speechwriters is to
declaim aloud (speak aloud, not in a conversational tone, but as if one were speaking to an
audience) any lengthy sentence intended for the Member. If the writer finds it taxing on the lungs,
then so will the Member; in such cases, it is advisable either to fashion shorter sentences, or to
repunctuate the original, using such obvious “time out” devices as the colon and semi-colon, both
of which are described in the next paragraph.
Commas and dashes are useful to the speaker and listeners alike as guideposts to what lies ahead
in a speech. They also provide pauses where the speaker can let the import of the previous
sentence sink in, or simply catch his or her breath. Opinion is divided on colons and semicolons;
some consider them as serving the same functions as commas and dashes, while others suggest
that they are more emphatic, demanding a full stop in the flow of remarks, rather than a short
pause. They are also sometimes criticized as leading to long compound sentences that are difficult
for audiences to process, and that are better replaced by shorter declarative ones. In the final
analysis, the Member’s personal preferences and style should be the congressional speechwriter’s
guide.
Correct grammar and syntax in the context of speechwriting and delivery mean using a level of
English usage that is appropriate to the occasion. While it is highly desirable, the formal grammar
of the written language is not an end in itself; it exists to further the clarity of expression. Far
more important than the grammarian’s rules is the communication of personality by which a
speech, as opposed to a lecture, is clothed with emotion and enthusiasm, so that the speaker is
perceived to be sincere and trustworthy, neither “talking over people’s heads” nor “talking down”
to them. While this may belong more to the presentation or delivery, the writer should strive for it
in speech preparation as well.

16 Herbert Read, English Prose Style (New York: Pantheon, 1980), pp. 33-51.






Effective delivery can transform a weak speech and make it sound very good. Poor delivery can
ruin the best-prepared speeches, and sometimes does. Although delivery is not the concern of the
speechwriter as such, it must be always in mind as a speech is actually written. The speaker’s
pace, his or her style, mannerisms, tendencies (such as departing from a text), peculiarities, or
special difficulties (words to avoid)—these are elements with which the writer should be well
acquainted before preparing any speech. Knowing how a Member speaks is essential in preparing
a draft that is both useful and realistic.
Ideally, a speech draft ought to be reviewed three times—by the writer, by the prospective
speaker, and by a disinterested third party. Of these three, priority should ordinarily be given to
the speaker. The revised product is likely to be more effective. With speeches, as with food,
however, too many cooks are undesirable. Moreover, time seldom permits this much critical
evaluation and rewriting. It may even be easier to provide for some appraisal of the speech’s
impact and audience reaction after delivery. For example, it is said that Senator Robert F.
Kennedy’s speech writers would follow his delivery of a speech word by word, noting those
phrases or ideas that were well received, or others that created problems.
An effective political speech is defined not by rules of rhetoric, but by the character of response it
evokes. The speaker, then, is always concerned to measure that response and to elicit “positive
feedback.” This means a network of contacts that can report on the opinions and reactions of the
audience, and evaluate the interest generated and evident a week or more after the event. It
requires an awareness of media coverage and subsequent treatment from constituents, the
sponsoring organization, and others. In short, it means adding a political relevance to the familiar
phrase, “keeping in touch.”
Although there are substantial distinctions between legislative and non-legislative speeches, the
basic principles of preparation and presentation are identical for both. Good writing is nurtured by
wide reading, which in turn fosters a sense of style, enriched vocabulary, accuracy in grammar,
and a feeling for English syntax. The best speechwriters will, through regular daily reading, bring
an ever more abundant background to their work. Everything is grist for the speechwriter’s mill.
Moreover, nothing is surer in speechwriting than that “practice makes perfect.” The more one
writes, the easier the task becomes, and the smoother and more conversational the flow of the
Member’s remarks.
As with so many aspects of speechwriting and delivery, the physical form of a speech is a matter
of personal preference. Some speakers prefer to work from a completely polished text, one that
may include carefully tailored “spontaneous” anecdotes and jokes at appropriate places, and may
even incorporate hints on speech delivery or effective body language in the text. Others prefer to
speak from notes derived from such a text, proceed from a series of “talking points,” or simply
extemporize. Whichever method is used, preparatory notes or an outline are recommended, with
the cautionary warning that dependence on a manuscript can deaden the delivery, just as the
excessive use of notes or cards can stimulate verbosity.






President-elect Lincoln’s farewell speech at Springfield, Illinois on February 11, 1861 is arguably
the shortest great speech ever delivered from the back of a train. Its railway car setting recalls to
mind the now-vanished connection between political events and the railroad, including the
whistle-stop campaigns of most presidential candidates from William Jennings Bryan to Dwight
Eisenhower. What Jacques Barzun called Lincoln’s “workaday style [would become] the
American style par excellence,” undermining the monopoly exercised by purveyors of “literary 17
plush.” The Springfield speech illustrates with extraordinary brevity—it is only a 15 line
paragraph—the Lincolnian qualities of precision, vernacular ease, rhythmic virtuosity, and
elegance.
The sense of right order and emphasis throughout culminates in the closing sentence—“one of the 18
greatest cadences in English speech.” The effect is achieved by the simple yet artful devices of
parallelism, the balancing of similar and antithetical words phrases, and ideas, evoking rich
Biblical overtones among his hearers. Lincoln’s style is rooted in the “speaking intonations” and
“humanly simple vernacular” of everyday speech, heightened by form and rhythm, the 19
distinctively American tradition seen at its best in such writers as Emerson and Frost. Although
some hold that today there is no place for rhetorical eloquence, arguing that “bluntness and 20
clarity” and simplistic thoughts are the norm, others assert that the craft of speechmaking, the 21
impact of skilled political rhetoric is as significant as ever in our history. Lincoln’s mastery of
that craft remains a formidable example.
My Friends: No one, not in my situation, can appreciate my feeling of sadness at this parting.
To this place, and the kindness of these people, I owe everything. Here I have lived a quarter
of a century, and have passed from a young to an old man. Here my children have been born,
and one is buried. I now leave, not knowing when or whether ever I may return, with a task
before me greater than that which rested upon Washington. Without the assistance of that
Divine Being who ever attended him, I cannot succeed. With that assistance, I cannot fail.
Trusting in Him who can go with me, and remain with you, and be everywhere for good, let
us confidently hope that all will yet be well. To His care commending you, as I hope in your 22
prayers you will commend me, I bid you an affectionate farewell.

The rise and, indeed, the virtual triumph in American political speaking of “the popular
conversational idiom,” with its emphasis on simplicity, brevity, and terseness, has tended to
encourage “simplistic language together with slogans or catch words ...,” influenced perhaps by

17 Jacques Barzun, On Writing, Editing, and Publishing (Chicago: U. of Chicago Press, 1972), pp. 57, 73.
18 Ibid., p. 73.
19 Richard Poirier, Robert Frost (New York: Oxford U. Press, 1977), p. 13.
20 Edward N. Costikyan, How to Win Votes: The Politics of 1980 (New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich, 1980), pp.
120-122.
21 Jeff Greenfield, Playing to Win (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1980), pp. 109-130.
22 Abraham Lincoln, “Farewell Address at Springfield, Illinois,” in The Collected Works of Abraham Lincoln, vol. IV,
Roy P. Basler, ed. (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers U. Press, 1953), pp. 190-191.





the techniques of mass media advertising and particularly television.23 “Repetition and retention 24
of a few simple ideas are stressed more than a complex concept.” In consequence, some have
noted a growing trend toward what some have characterized as a numbing mediocrity: “Since the
1920s more political speakers have addressed larger audiences on a wider range of topics than at
any time in history. Yet so marked is the decline in the quality of style that the majority of 25
speeches are pedestrian, prosaic, and impotent.” This last may be an excessively pessimistic
evaluation of the state of contemporary political speech. Few, moreover, would advocate a return
to the florid style of public speaking that prevailed as recently as the 1920s.
The remedy, in part, may be the cultivation of style. “Time should be devoted,” writes L. Patrick
Devlin, “to using impressive language,” which he defines as “the most vivid, clear, concise, and 26
meaningful style.” It will be most effective if it bears the personal stamp of the speaker. “The 27
process of persuasion is ... more a matter of communicating values than logical information.” In
essence, good speechwriting requires that the speaker assume a role: to some extent, he or she
must be able to impart confidence and to sense the character of an audience. We need not agree
with Talleyrand’s cynical observation that “speech was given to man to disguise his thoughts” to
recognize that effective persuasion calls for the ability to win the hearts and minds of listeners. To
seem natural is not easy; as George Fluharty and Harold Ross wrote in Public Speaking:
The speaker is estimating his audience and his audience is estimating him. His ethics, his
integrity, understanding, and humanity are strong forces for good and also strong
components of his ethos” or personal effect upon not only his present but also his future
audiences. The speaker should therefore make sure that the actual situation permits him to 28
use a given persuasive device.
Once again, the words of Abraham Lincoln, himself no mean practitioner of the public speaker’s
art, may serve to summarize the speechwriter’s ultimate goal:
When the conduct of men is designed to be influenced, persuasion, kind, unassuming
persuasion, should ever be adopted. It is an old and true maxim that a drop of honey catches
more flies than a gallon of gall. So with men. If you would win a man to your cause, first
convince him that you are his sincere friend. Therein is a drop of honey that catches his
heart, which, say what he will, is the great high-road to his reason, and which, when once
gained, you will find but little trouble convincing his judgment of the justice of your cause, if 29
indeed that cause really is a good one.

23 James L. Golden, “Political Speaking Since the 1920s,” in Contemporary American Speeches, Will A. Linkugel,
R.R. Allen, and Richard L. Johannesen, eds., 2nd ed. (Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Pub Co., 1969), p. 170.
24 L. Patrick Devlin, Contemporary Political Speaking (Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Pub. Co., 1971), p. 14.
25 Golden, Contemporary American Speeches, p. 178.
26 Devlin, Contemporary Political Speaking, p. 14.
27 James H. McBath and Walter R. Fisher, “Persuasion in Presidential Campaign Communication,” Quarterly Journal
of Speech, vol. 55, Feb. 1969, p. 18.
28 George W. Fluharty and Harold R. Ross, Public Speaking (New York: Barnes and Noble, 1981), p. 276.
29 Address before the Washingtonian Temperance Society of Springfield, IL, Feb. 22, 1842. Quoted in Caroline
Thomas Harnsberger, The Lincoln Treasury (Chicago: Wilcox and Follett, 1950), p. 43.





Thomas H. Neale Dana Ely
Specialist in American National Government Information Research Specialist
tneale@crs.loc.gov, 7-7883 dely@crs.loc.gov, 7-5007