Tactical Aircraft Modernization: Issues for Congress







Prepared for Members and Committees of Congress



This report examines the Department of Defense’s (DOD’s) three largest tactical aircraft
modernization programs. The “Background” section provides a brief description of each program
and a discussion of how tactical aircraft fit into military air operations: the missions they typically
perform and how they contrast to longer-range combat aircraft.
The “Analysis: Key Issues to Consider” section examines a number of policy issues, including
affordability, capability required, force structure, and defense industrial base. The paper
concludes with a synopsis of congressional action on these programs.
The Defense Department is procuring the F-22 fighter for the Air Force, the F/A-18E/F
fighter/attack plane for the Navy, and the Joint Strike Fighter (JSF) aircraft in three variants, some
of which might be operational around 2012.
Decisions in Congress and the Defense Department regarding these aircraft programs may have
important long-term implications. The F/A-18E/F is in full-rate production. The F-22 is nearing
the end of its planned production. The JSF might be in production through the 2020s. Decisions
about the funding of these programs will influence the future of individual U.S. aircraft
manufacturers, and may well affect the division of combat roles and missions among the services
for decades.
Some in Congress have expressed concern about the need for some of these aircraft programs on
grounds of cost and affordability, and military requirements. Some in Congress have also
expressed concern over the potential impact of these aircraft programs on the defense industrial
base. This report will be updated as events warrant.
This report replaces Issue Brief IB92115 of the same title.






Introduc tion ..................................................................................................................................... 1
Backgr ound ..................................................................................................................................... 2
Current Programs............................................................................................................................3
F-22A Raptor.............................................................................................................................3
F/A-18E/F Super Hornet...........................................................................................................4
F-35 Lightning II.......................................................................................................................5
Unmanned Aerial Vehicles........................................................................................................6
Analysis: Key Issues to Consider....................................................................................................7
Affordabil it y .................................................................................................................. ............ 7
Capability Required..................................................................................................................8
Force Structure........................................................................................................................10
Defense Industrial Base............................................................................................................11
Congressional Action....................................................................................................................12
Authorization........................................................................................................................... 13
Appropriations......................................................................................................................... 14
Figure 1. F-22 Raptor......................................................................................................................3
Figure 2. F/A-18F Super Hornet.....................................................................................................4
Figure 3. F-35 Joint Strike Fighter (JSF).........................................................................................6
Figure 4. ERMP...............................................................................................................................7
Figure 5. Predator............................................................................................................................7
Table 1. Estimated Number of Aircraft to Be Procured...................................................................8
Table 2. FY2009 Budget Request..................................................................................................13
Author Contact Information..........................................................................................................14






Tactical or theater aircraft—fighter planes, fighter/attack planes, and attack planes—constitute a
major component of U.S. military capability. They played a prominent role in the 1991 Gulf War,
and are expected to play a leading role in contemporary and future military operations,
particularly in situations where U.S. leaders hope to limit or avoid the commitment of U.S.
ground forces. Operation Allied Force, the 1999 war in Kosovo, may have fueled these
expectations. During this 78-day war, hundreds of coalition aircraft attacked Serbian targets,
losing only two aircraft in the process. Navy tactical combat aircraft played a prominent role in
the early stages of Operation Enduring Freedom, and tactical aircraft from all services continue
fighting in the war in Afghanistan and Iraq.
Tactical aviation accounts for a significant part of the defense budget, counting the costs of
developing, procuring, and operating aircraft, engines, avionics, and weapon systems, and
personnel, training, and administrative costs. In round numbers, the U.S. Air Force, Navy, and
Marine Corps operated approximately 4,200 fixed-wing tactical combat aircraft in 2007. Of these,
the Air Force operated about 2,658 and the Navy and the Marine Corps 1,541. In addition to these 1
fixed-wing combat aircraft, the Services operate about 1,300 armed helicopters. This report
focuses on fixed-wing aircraft programs: the Air Force F-22, the Navy F/A-18E/F, and the F-35
Joint Strike Fighter. The research and development, procurement, and military construction costs 2
of these aircraft will combine to cost taxpayers an estimated $418 billion in constant dollars.
These aircraft have been traditionally referred to as “tactical” aircraft to distinguish them from the
Air Force’s B-52, B-1, and B-2 “strategic” bombers. When applied to aircraft, “tactical” generally
refers to smaller and shorter-ranged planes, while “strategic” generally refers to larger and longer-
ranged aircraft. Both tactical and strategic types are operated by USAF’s Air Combat Command,
which in 1992 replaced Strategic Air Command (SAC) and Tactical Air Command (TAC).
Reflecting the post-Cold War demise of SAC and TAC, tactical aircraft are sometimes referred to
as “theater aircraft.”
The Military Services use alpha-numeric designations (e.g., A-10, F-15, B-52, F/A-18) to identify
the type of mission the aircraft is designed to perform. This taxonomy can be confusing because it
is loosely defined (e.g., the Joint Strike Fighter is a multi-role aircraft, which would suggest an
F/A-35 designation) and because, over time, an aircraft can be modified to perform additional
missions. For example, the B-52 Stratofortress today exploits advanced targeting and precision
guided munitions (PGMs) to conduct close air support (CAS) missions, which are historically
performed by tactical aircraft, not long-range bombers. Generally speaking, however:
• Fighter planes primarily engage in air-to-air combat, either at close/visual range
or at ranges requiring radar-guided missiles and stand-off munitions (including
“precision-guided munitions”/ PGMs).
• Attack planes focus on air-to-surface combat operations such as CAS for
friendly ground forces engaged in battle, battlefield air interdiction (BAI) against

1 See CRS Report RL32447, Military Helicopter Modernization: Background and Issues for Congress, by Christopher
Bolkcom and Christian F. M. Liles.
2 Selected Acquisition Report (SAR) Summary Tables. Department of Defense. OUSD (AT&L) as of December 31,
2007.





enemy forces behind the lines, and deep interdiction (also known as “deep
strike”) against the enemy’s military, political, and industrial infrastructure.
• Fighter/attack planes (also known as fighter-bombers, strike fighters, or
multirole fighters) perform both air-to-air and air-to-surface missions.
• Long-range bombers and cruise missiles can also be used in BAI and deep
strike operations.
• Increasingly, armed Unmanned Aerial Vehicles, or UAVs, are used to attack
ground targets, especially in low-intensity combat or counterinsurgency missions.

Major changes in the national security environment (e.g., the fall of the Soviet Union, the terror
attacks of 9/11) have informed DOD plans for tactical aviation modernization. In response to an
emerging congressional consensus and recommendations by the Defense Department’s 1993
Bottom-Up Review (BUR) of force structure requirements, the Clinton Administration decided in
late 1993 to continue two major aircraft programs then underway—the F-22, a low-observable-to-
radar (stealthy) fighter for the Air Force; and the F/A-18E/F version of the F/A-18 fighter/attack
plane for the Navy—while also pursuing new aviation technology initiatives through the Joint
Advanced Strike Technology (JAST) program, which later evolved into the Joint Strike Fighter
(JSF) program.
The George H. Bush Administration’s plan for modernizing U.S. tactical aircraft had focused on
four key aircraft programs: (1) the F-22, (2) the F/A-18E/F, (3) the AFX, a stealthy attack/fighter
aircraft to be developed for the Navy and Air Force, and (4) the Multi-Role Fighter (MRF), either
a new aircraft or an upgraded version of the F-16 fighter/attack plane for the Air Force. Since
there was no funding for the MRF and only minimal funding for the AFX, their rejection by the
BUR in 1993 was more a recognition of their demise than the termination of viable programs.
The Defense Department’s first Quadrennial Defense Review (QDR), released in May of 1997,
recommended buying fewer tactical aircraft than was then projected, with reduced annual
procurement of the F-22 and the F/A-18E/F. The George W. Bush administration took office with 3
the aim to “transform” the Department of Defense rather than merely modernize its capabilities.
Tactical aircraft programs were reviewed in this context, and in Program Budget Decision (PBD)
753 (December 23, 2004), DOD recommended that the F-22 program be terminated after the
FY2008 purchase.

3 Unlike modernization, transformation is generally viewed as discontinuous change, or a “leap ahead” in capabilities.
See CRS Report RL32238, Defense Transformation: Background and Oversight Issues for Congress, by Ronald
O’Rourke for more information on military transformation.






Built by Lockheed Martin and Boeing, the F-22A features a stealthy design, advanced engines by
Pratt and Whitney, and new avionics by Hughes and other subcontractors. It is replacing the F-15
as the Air Force’s air superiority fighter. Like the F-15E, the F-22 will also have air-to-surface
attack capabilities. The program was in competitive prototyping from 1986 to 1991 and then
entered engineering and manufacturing development (EMD), with prototype flights beginning in

1997. On September 14, 2001, the Defense Acquisition Board (DAB) announced its much-


awaited decision that the F-22 program had successfully completed EMD and was ready to move
on to low-rate initial production. On December 15, 2005, the Air Force announced that a 12-
aircraft detachment of F-22s had achieved initial operational capability (IOC).
Figure 1. F-22 Raptor

In recent years, tension has emerged between the Air Force, which states a requirement for 381
Raptors, and DOD’s civilian leaders, who have restricted spending plans instead to 184 aircraft. th
F-22 supporters won the debate in the 109 Congress on whether to grant multiyear procurement
(MYP) authority for the final 60 Raptors. In FY2009, Congress provided DOD with the resources
to either continue F-22 procurement beyond the current program of record or to begin closing the th
production line. In early 2009, DOD and the 111 Congress will be faced with making a decision
on the F-22’s future. (See CRS Report RL31673, F-22A Raptor, by Christopher Bolkcom for
more information on the F-22.)





Built by Boeing (since its acquisition of McDonnell Douglas in 1997) and Northrop Grumman,
the Super Hornet is a larger and more expensive version of the older F/A-18C/D fighter/attack
plane. It has more range/payload than the F/A-18s it will replace and has more potential for future
modernization. In May 1992, the program entered EMD, with prototypes beginning flight-tests in
late 1995 and procurement funding beginning in FY1997. In December 2003, the Navy awarded a
five-year, $8.6 billion multi-year procurement contract for 210 F/A-18E/Fs to the Boeing
Company. Procurement of 493 F/A-18E/Fs is currently projected, at a cost $46.3 billion in then-4
year dollars. Eighty-five electronic attack versions of the aircraft—the EA-18G will be procured 5
as a replacement for the Navy’s aging EA-6B Prowler fleet. A separate $1 billion contract was
also awarded to develop this aircraft, which is estimated to cost a total of $8.6 billion. The first
operational EA-18G was delivered to the Navy in June 2008. Due to continued operations in
Afghanistan and Iraq, Department of the Navy (DON) officials state that the current strike-fighter
fleet is ageing prematurely and that the current aircraft modernization plan will not satisfy future
needs. At its worst, DON officials projected a deficit of more than 90 aircraft in FY2017-FY2020.
This perceived fighter gap has prompted many to argue that DOD should purchase additional
F/A-18E/F aircraft beyond the current plan.
Figure 2. F/A-18F Super Hornet


4F/A-18E/F.” Selected Acquisition Report. (SAR) Office of the Secretary of Defense (AT&L). December 25, 2007.
5 Electronic attack aircraft increase the survivability of attack aircraft by jamming radars used by enemy aircraft and air
defenses and making it difficult for them to target U.S. aircraft. For more information about electronic warfare and the
EA-6B. See CRS Report RL30639, Electronic Warfare: EA-6B Aircraft Modernization and Related Issues for th
Congress, by Christopher Bolkcom and CRS Report RL30841, Airborne Electronic Warfare: Issues for the 107
Congress, by Christopher Bolkcom.





The F-35 Lightening II, also called the Joint Strike Fighter (JSF), began in FY1994 as the Joint
Advanced Strike Technology (JAST) program, which emerged after cancellations of the AFX and
MRF. The JSF program seeks to design, develop, and produce a family of affordable joint-service
fighter/attack planes, with conventional take-off and landing (CTOL) aircraft for the Air Force
and Navy and short take-off vertical landing (STOVL) aircraft for the U.S. Marine Corps and the
U.K. Royal Navy. In February 2004, Air Force leaders announced that the Air Force would also
procure some number of STOVL variants to improve its ability to prosecute the close air support
(CAS) mission and reduce reliance on access to forward bases.
The JSF is DOD’s largest cooperative acquisition program. Eight foreign countries have pledged 6
funds to the JSF program. A number of other countries are being considered for either JSF 7
partnership or as purchasers. Participation is related to the financial contributions to the program
by these governments, the British government being the major non-U.S. contributor of
development funds.
From 1997 to 2001, the program was in a competitive design phase involving prototypes built by
both Boeing and Lockheed Martin. On October 26, 2001, DOD announced that Lockheed Martin
won the competition, and would move on to the production phase. In May 2005, DOD approved a
plan to revamp the JSF program to account for developmental difficulties. The revised plan
entails stretching out development efforts 16 to 22 months, adding $11.7 billion in costs and
cutting the number of aircraft the Defense Department will buy. As now projected, some 2,456
JSFs would be procured. Low rate production was approved in 2008, and operational service is
scheduled for March 2012. The JSF program is currently estimated (December 2007) at $298 8
billion. In its FY2009 budget, DOD requested no funds for the JSF F-136 alternate engine th
program, despite clear guidance from the 109 Congress that this program was to be pursued. The 9
F-136 was initiated by Congress in FY1996. (See CRS Report RL33390, Proposed Termination
of Joint Strike Fighter (JSF) F136 Alternate Engine, by Anthony Murch and Christopher
Bolkcom for more information on the F-136 issue.)

6 Australia, Denmark, Italy, Netherlands, Norway, Canada, Turkey, and United Kingdom.
7 Israel, Poland, Singapore.
8 See CRS Report RL30563, F-35 Lightning II Joint Strike Fighter (JSF) Program: Background, Status, and Issues, by
Christopher Bolkcom and Anthony Murch.
9 Those in Congress who initiated the alternate engine program hoped to create a competitive environment during JSF
production, in which engine manufacturers would compete against each other for business. This competition would
generate cost savings and improved engine reliability and performance. Supporters believe the Air Force was
successful in creating such an environment when it funded an alternate engine for the F-16 Falcon.





Figure 3. F-35 Joint Strike Fighter (JSF)
The Defense Department has pursued unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) since World War I. The
use of these aircraft for military missions increased very slowly until the commercial world
experienced rapid advances in geo-positioning, communications, and information technologies in
the 1980s and 1990s. Spending on UAVs has more than quadrupled between 2001 and 2009
($667 million to $2.9 billion), and the variety of programs and missions is noteworthy.
The Air Force and the Army currently field three armed UAVs that have increasingly been used to
attack ground targets in Afghanistan, Iraq, and elsewhere: the MQ-1 Predator, MQ-9 Reaper, and
Extended Range Multi-Purpose (ERMP) Unmanned Aerial System (UAS) (which is based on the
Shadow 200 UAV). The Air Force plans to purchase 38 Predators and 9 Reapers in FY2009 to
add to the 268 Predators and 18 Reapers previously ordered. The Army has purchased 84 Shadow
UAVs in the past, and asks to purchase one more in FY2009.
Armed UAVs appear to complement manned tactical combat aircraft. Advantages of UAVs
include no risk of losing pilots and long dwell time (up to 30 hours), which provides persistent
surveillance over the battlefield and the ability to attack promptly if necessary. Disadvantages of
UAVs include a relatively high accident rate and less flexibility than manned aircraft. Presently,





UAVs cannot engage in air-to-air combat, nor protect themselves effectively against enemy air 10
defenses. Increased use of UAVs also creates concerns about congested airspace.
Proposed FY2009 funding for these three UAVs is $871.8 million in procurement and $68.2
million in R&D. These figures reflect a healthy share of DOD’s UAV funding but pale in
comparison to the three manned aircraft programs in this report, which tally $13.5 billion in
FY2009.
Figure 4. ERMP Figure 5. Predator

Given possible constraints on defense spending in future years, can we afford tactical aircraft
modernization programs as currently projected?
For more than 20 years—since 1993—some observers have predicted a “train wreck” in DOD’s
tactical aviation programs. These observers see too many aircraft competing for too few dollars.
In March 2005, for example, Tactical Air and Land Forces Subcommittee Chairman
Representative Curt Weldon began a hearing by observing that tactical aviation is “in the midst of
a massive train wreck financially.” Representative Weldon noted that the costs of the F-22 and
JSF had increased by “well over 100” and 80% respectively, and one impact of these increases 11
was reduced aircraft purchases.
It may be that a budgetary train wreck is looming. As the table below suggests, a more apt
metaphor for the tactical aviation budget to date may be one of a “slow leak.” Over the past 14

10 See CRS Report RL31872, Unmanned Aerial Vehicles: Background and Issues for Congress, by Harlan Geer and
Christopher Bolkcom for more information.
11 “Hearing of the Tactical Air and Land Forces Subcommittee of the House Armed Services Committee,Federal
News Service, March 25, 2005.





years, budget pressures have reduced the number of aircraft that some estimate DOD can afford
by more than 30%.
Table 1. Estimated Number of Aircraft to Be Procured
FY F/A-22 JSFa F/A-18E/F Total
1991 648 2978 1000 4626
1993 442 2978 1000 4420
1997 339 2978 548 3865
2000 333 2866 548 3859
2004 279 2866 462b 3607
2006 179 2443 462 3084
2008 183 2456 493 3132
Source: Estimates by DOD Comptroller, GAO, CBO, CRS.
a. The United Kingdom plans to buy 150 JSFs. However, budget shortfalls may force the UK to reduce
purchases.
b. Does not include 90 EA-18G electronic attack aircraft.
This “slow leak” in tactical aviation funding may continue. Or, budgets may hold steady. (Few
predict that tactical aviation budgets will increase in real terms.) However, other aircraft
acquisition challenges may continue to erode tactical aviation’s budget. As mentioned above,
spending on Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) has more than quadrupled between 2001 and
2009, and DOD’s appetite for these systems show no sign of abating. All the services wish to
recapitalize their helicopter fleets. Advocates of long-range bombers have been pressuring the Air
Force to maintain its current inventory of bombers, and to field a replacement earlier than the
planned date of 2037. Also, as Congress is well aware, replacing DOD’s aging fleet of long-range
aerial refueling aircraft is a growing priority and will require sustained investment.
Some also believe that previously unanticipated costs associated with combating terrorism may
mean that the “tac air train wreck” has fully arrived. CRS estimates that since the September 11
terrorist attacks, DOD has received over $859 billion for combat operations, occupation, and
support for military personnel deployed or supporting operations in Iraq and Afghanistan and for
enhanced security at military installations. DOD and congressional initiatives to increase both
personnel benefits and personnel “end strength” could also increase pressure to reduce tactical
aviation budgets.
The act of matching resources (i.e., budget) to objectives in a procurement program can be called
a “business case.” GAO, for one, has argued that the F-22 lacks a business case (GAO-05-304),
and that the JSF’s business case is “unexecutable” (GAO-05-271). This assertion suggests to
some, at least implicitly, that the relevance of these aircraft, as reflected in their currently planned
procurement quantities, to the current military environment, is unclear.
Given the demise of the Soviet Union and the dominance U.S. air forces have demonstrated in
recent conflicts, and the apparent growth of low-intensity conflicts, what capabilities are required
in U.S. tactical aircraft?





The F-22 program was started in the mid-1980s, when the Soviet Union was expected to continue
producing high-performance aircraft and air-defense missiles that could pose serious threats in the
1990s and beyond. The F-22 was then justified as an advanced aircraft capable of performing
combat missions in a high-threat military environment. With the demise of the Soviet Union and a
much changed politico-military environment, some question the need to procure large quantities
of such expensive, high-capability aircraft. Alternatives would be to produce only limited
numbers of these aircraft, while upgrading and extending the service lives of existing aircraft
such as Air Force F-15Es and F-16Cs, Navy and Marine Corps F/A-18C/Ds, and Navy F/A-
18E/Fs. Others argue that advanced combat aircraft are not the most applicable airpower
resources for counterinsurgency and anti-terrorism operations. These observers would reduce
planned combat aircraft procurement programs in favor of increased investments in unmanned
aerial vehicles, special operations helicopters, medical evacuation aircraft, and training and 12
equipping forward air controllers.
Others argue that large numbers of high-capability aircraft are still necessary because Russian
aircraft and surface-to-air missiles (SAMs) are available to potential adversaries of the United
States and its allies, and some European and Asian companies may soon be able to market
advanced aircraft and SAMs to potential enemies. In this view, the demise of the Soviet Union
does not mean the end of potential high-threat areas requiring advanced aircraft. Recent
acquisitions of fighter aircraft and surface-to-air missiles by China, and to a lesser degree India,
have fueled some observers’ concerns that these countries may effectively challenge U.S.
airpower in the future. In recent conflicts in Iraq and Yugoslavia, the F-117 stealth attack plane
played a crucial role in destroying targets in high-threat areas. Having large numbers of such
advanced aircraft, it is argued, will help ensure operational success in future conflicts with well-
armed adversaries.
Most of those questioning the modernization plan acknowledge that proliferation of advanced
aircraft and air-defense equipment in the Third World will require the United States to field some
new-generation high-capability aircraft. They argue, however, that the Gulf War showed the
United States has a formidable advantage in air-to-air combat, which can be maintained by
procuring a limited number of F-22s for use against those adversaries who may be able to make
effective use of modern Russian or European aircraft. They note that the stealthy F-117s used in
the Gulf War constituted a tiny percentage of all tactical aircraft employed against Iraq, and only
a few non-stealthy planes were shot down, even in the early days of the war. Moreover, they
argue that cruise missiles and stealthy B-2 bombers and non-stealthy B-1s equipped with
adequate standoff munitions could be used against heavily defended targets. In this view, F-22s
would be procured in some smaller quantity than the 381 planes currently desired by the Air
Force and could be operated as special “silver bullet” forces.
Others take issue with the need for any F-22s, arguing that the Air Force and Navy will face
generally the same adversary aircraft in the future, and these services now have roughly equal
capability in air-to-air combat as well as considerable air-to-surface attack capabilities with F-
15Es. Others point out that the Navy will eventually conduct its air-to-air combat mission
primarily with the F/A-18E/F. If the Navy does not need a new generation stealth fighter for the
post-Cold War era, they ask, why is such an aircraft required for the Air Force? Some also argue

12 See CRS Report RL32737, Military Aviation: Issues and Options for Combating Terrorism and Counterinsurgency,
by Christopher Bolkcom and Kenneth Katzman for more information on the application of airpower to
counterinsurgency missions.





that the improved attack capability of the F/A-18E/F will be sufficient for carrier-based attack
missions against the most likely adversaries in regional conflicts. Furthermore, it can be argued
that the successful development of longer-range and more accurate and lethal standoff munitions
would significantly increase the combat effectiveness of current-generation tactical aircraft.
How many tactical aircraft does the United States need?
The George H. Bush Administration’s proposed base force for the mid-1990s and beyond reduced
force structure to 26.5 Air Force fighter and attack wings, 13 Navy carrier air wings, and 4
Marine Corps air wings (compared to 35, 15, and 4 air wings respectively in FY1990). Budgetary
considerations and radically altered international conditions led to these reductions, which some
argued were appropriate for the post-Cold War era, while others viewed this force structure as
excessive. Secretary of Defense Les Aspin announced in September 1993 that the Clinton
Administration projected a base force of 20 Air Force fighter/attack wings (13 active, 7 reserve),
11 Navy carrier air wings, and 4 Marine Corps air wings. The 1997 QDR recommended no major
changes in this force structure, although the 20 Air Force tactical wings would comprise 12 active
and 8 reserve wings.
The question of how many wings of tactical aircraft the United States needs for the “post-9/11”
era, and how this number should be determined, is part of an ongoing debate in the Defense
Department and Congress over the proper overall size of U.S. military forces. Decisions on this
issue can affect views on the affordability and focus of plans for modernizing tactical aircraft. A
reduction in the number of air wings would lead to a corresponding reduction in the number of
aircraft to be procured. However, a reduction in the number of air wings may lead to a decision to
increase the proportions of F-22s and F/A-18E/Fs in the force, on grounds that reduced forces
need more capable equipment.
In an attempt to save money, but maintain combat capability, the Navy-Marine Corps Tactical Air
Integration Plan, proposed in late 2002, reduced the number of Navy and Marine Corps combat 13
aircraft squadrons by nine. Deputy Secretary of Defense Gordon England reportedly views this
reduction as a potential model for DOD’s entire tactical aviation force. In a March 21, 2005
interview, Mr. England noted that by better integrating Navy and Marine Corps tactical aviation,
the Defense Department was able to reduce aircraft purchases and save $35 billion, while
maintaining the same combat capabilities. Increased efficiencies that might be realized across
DOD’s tactical air enterprise might include better integration, and more common assets, he told
reporters. Mr. England advocated that DOD examine its “whole [tactical aviation] enterprise” and 14
search for efficiencies and savings.”
Debate over the size of current and projected tactical aviation forces continues in the 110th
Congress. Despite its integration plan described above, the Navy and Marine Corps now project a 15
shortfall of up to 90 aircraft in FY2017-FY2020. In congressional testimony, Air Force leaders

13 See CRS Report RS21488, Navy-Marine Corps Tactical Air Integration Plan: Background and Issues for Congress,
by Christopher Bolkcom and Ronald ORourke. A Carrier Air Wing typically includes four strike fighter squadrons.
14 Christopher J. Castelli, “DEPSECDEF Nominee Sees Potential For DOD-Wide TACAIR Integration,Inside the
Navy, April 4, 2005.
15 See CRS Report RS22875, Navy-Marine Corps Strike-Fighter Shortfall: Background and Options for Congress, by
(continued...)





testified that they anticipate a gap of 800 fighter aircraft in 2024 under current procurement 16
plans. Critics of Air Force claims that a fighter gap will emerge argue that such projections are
strongly influenced by assumptions on threats and whether the United States will fight alone or
part of a coalition. Also, some argue that Air Force demands for more fighter aircraft are driven
more by organizational constraints than by actual war fighting needs, an argument akin to that
levied against the Army when it organized itself principally by Division, rather than by today’s 17
more deployable Brigade Combat Teams.
How should industrial-base considerations be factored into decisions on tactical aircraft
modernization?
The health of the U.S. defense industrial base is a perennial and unsettled issue. A report by the
Defense Science Board published in the Spring of 2000 noted that the defense industry was in the
midst of a painful transition that was complicated by the “new economy,” which was draining
human and financial resources. Unless steps were taken promptly, the study concluded, the U.S.
defense industry would likely be less competitive and financially viable in 5 to 10 years than it
was in 2000. A July 2000 study by Booz-Allen Hamilton reported that the U.S. defense industrial
base was in a state of decline and national security would be affected if then-current trends went 18
unchecked. A 2005 study by DOD, however, found no major problems with U.S. defense 19
industry.
Congressional decisions on tactical aviation programs have serious implications for the aerospace
sector of the U.S. industrial base, which is a major source of technological innovations as well as
export earnings. Aerospace is the nation’s leading net exporter of manufactured goods, with
exports exceeding imports in 2005 by $39.7 billion (including $10.2 billion in military exports),
according to the Aerospace Industries Association. There is general agreement that there were
more aircraft manufacturers and subcontractors than recent levels of defense spending could
sustain. Consequently, the aerospace industry, like other industries heavily dependent on
Pentagon spending, has been undergoing a shakeout, with some companies leaving the military
aircraft business and others merging with financially stronger competitors and downsizing
production lines.
Congressional decisions on which military aircraft programs to support could determine which
aircraft manufacturers and subcontractors remain in business. Although the U.S. economy as a
whole regularly absorbs declines equal in magnitude to that projected for defense aerospace, in
the short- and medium-term, thousands of skilled engineering and manufacturing jobs as well as

(...continued)
Christopher Bolkcom.
16 Lieutenant General Daniel Darnell, Deputy Chief of Staff Air, Space and Information Operations, Plans and
Requirements. “Senate Armed Services Subcommittee on Airland Holds Hearing on the Fiscal 2009 Budget for Air
Force and Navy Aviation Programs.” Congressional Quarterly. Congressional Transcripts. April 9, 2008. p.16
17 William Matthews. “Coming up short; Is the Air Forces ‘Fighter-gap’ truth or spin? Armed Forces Journal
International. July 2008. p.26.
18 Anthony Velocci, “Industry Prognosis Flags Ominous Trends,” Aviation Week & Space Technology, July 17, 2000.
19 Sharon Weinberger, “Annual Report Paints Rosy Picture of Defense Industrial Base,” Defense Daily, March 28,
2005.





the health of local and regional economies could be at stake. Some argue that preservation of
critical components of U.S. defense industry is now as important as military requirements, which
have always been matters of judgment based on threat assumptions that are subject to change.
There is no apparent consensus, however, about what is most critical to future U.S. military
requirements or how excess military industrial capabilities can be converted to civilian production
that might enhance international competitiveness in export trade.
Several questions arise out of the industrial base issue: How many aircraft manufacturers are
needed to support U.S. military needs? To what extent should the survivability of these firms be
taken into account in deciding which aircraft programs to pursue? Which aspects of the aerospace
industry are genuinely unique and vital to production of U.S. tactical aircraft? How can
competitiveness among U.S. defense contractors be maintained with fewer firms, particularly
regarding different design concepts and cost-reduction innovations in the development and
production of planes? Should foreign sales of U.S. military aircraft be factored into decisions on
which tactical aircraft programs to pursue? How might decisions on tactical aircraft programs
affect U.S. export earnings and international competitiveness of the U.S. aerospace industry?
There are no easy answers to such questions and no consensus on these industrial base issues,
which confront all industrial nations in the early 2000s.
Recently, U.S. companies have lost a number of competitions to European companies in an area
of historic dominance: domestic, U.S. defense aviation. European companies beat U.S. companies
in competition for the prestigious VH-71 Presidential Helicopter, the lucrative KC-X aerial 20
refueling aircraft (tanker) program, and the Joint Cargo Aircraft (JCA). These awards may
encourage lawmakers to look more closely at the defense industrial base dimension of aviation
acquisition decisions.

This section presents recent legislative activity on DOD’s four major tactical aircraft
modernization programs. It includes the Administration’s annual budget request, and annual
authorization and appropriations. The Bush Administration’s FY2009 defense budget included the
following requests for tactical aircraft programs: F-22 ($4.1 billion); JSF ( $6.9 billion); F/A-

18E/F ( $2.4 billion); EA-18G ($1.8 billion). Details of the request are summarized in Table 2,


below.

20 The KC-X award process was found to be flawed and the award to Northrop Grumman and its partner EADS has
been rescinded. See CRS Report RL34398, Air Force Air Refueling: The KC-X Aircraft Acquisition Program, by
Christopher Bolkcom and William Knight for more information.





Table 2. FY2009 Budget Request
($ millions)
USAF
Procure USN Procure USA Procure USAF USN USA
Program $ # $ # R&D R&D $ # R&D
F-22 3164.2 20 700.3
0.0 APCY
327.0 Mods
JSF 1796.5 8 1720.9 8 1524.0 1532.7
136.9 APCY 258.8 APCY
F/A-18E/F 1917.9 23 71.2a
42.6 aAPCY
450.9 Mods
EA-18G 1655.6 22 128.9
46.8 APCY
Predator 378.7 38 24.7
Reaper 161.4 9 43.5
Warrior 316.6b 1 50.9
Sources: Procurement Programs (P-1), Department of Defense Budget for FY2009, February 2008. RDT&E Programs
(R-1), Department of Defense Budget for FY2009, February 2008.
Note: APCY = Advanced Procurement, Current Year.
a. Some of these funds would be spent on F/A-18A/C/D models as well as E/F models.
b. Includes sensor payloads, long-lead items for FY2010 procurement
Authorization conferees (S. 3001) took the following action on the programs in Table 2, above:
• Cut $147 million from F-22 procurement and provided $523 million for F-22
either advance procurement of long lead items for an additional lot of fighters, or
to pay for production line shut down. In Sec. 134, conferees noted that the
provision would prohibit “obligating more than $140 million of those funds until
the next President of the United States: (1) decides whether continuing F-22
production or terminating production would be in the best interests of the Nation;
and (2) submits a certification of that decision before March 1, 2009, to the
congressional defense committees.” Conferees matched the Air Force’s F-22
R&D request.
• Matched all funding requests for the F/A-18E/F and EA-18G programs.
• Cut a total of two aircraft and $332.3 million from the F-35 JSF procurement
requests. Conferees added $35 million to the Air Force’s JSF advanced
procurement account and a total of $495 million to the JSF R&D accounts to
fund the F136 alternate engine.
• Matched all requests for UAV procurement and R&D, and added $6 million to
the Air Force’s Predator R&D account for sense-and-avoid technology.





Appropriations conferees (H.R. 2638) took the following action on the programs in Table 2,
above:
• Cut $147 million from the Air Force’s F-22 procurement request, and provided
$523 million in F-22 APCY for 20 additional aircraft. Appropriators also cut $38
million from the F-22 R&D account.
• Cut $102 million from F/A-18E/F procurement request due to reduced overhead
from recent FMS, and added $3 million to the F/A-18 R&D account.
Appropriators also matched the Navy’s EA-18G procurement request added $1.5
million to EA-18G R&D.
• Cut four aircraft at $780 million from F-35 JSF procurement requests, and added
$35 million to Air Force APCY for the F136 alternate engine. Appropriators also
added $752 million to the JSF’s R&D accounts.
• Supported Air Force UAV programs by adding $67 million and four aircraft to
MQ-9 procurement and matching the MQ-1 procurement request. Appropriators
also added $3 million to both the MQ-9 and MQ-1 R&D accounts. Appropriators
cut $81.5 million from the Army’s ERMP procurement request but matched the
ERMP R&D request.
Christopher Bolkcom
Specialist in Military Aviation
cbolkcom@crs.loc.gov, 7-2577