9/11 Commission Recommendations: Implementation Status

9/11 Commission Recommendations:
Implementation Status
December 4, 2006
Richard F. Grimmett, Coordinator
Specialist in National Defense
Foreign Affairs, Defense, and Trade Division



9/11 Commission Recommendations: Implementation
Status
Summary
This report provides a review of the 9/11 Commission recommendations and the
status of their implementation at the end of the 109th Congress. The discussions
herein are organized on the basis of policy themes that are at the core of the 9/11
Commission’s recommendations, rather than through a review of each numbered
item set out in the Commission’s final report. The analysis was produced by a large
team of CRS Specialists, analysts, and attorneys who are responsible for the wide
variety of policy areas covered by the 9/11 Commission in its work. The authors of
the varied segments of this report are identified in footnotes. Each section of the
report summarizes the pertinent elements of the 9/11 Commission’s recommendation
relevant to the section’s policy theme. Then a review is made of responses made by
the Congress to implement, in whole or in part, the given recommendation. Where
appropriate, notice is taken of Executive branch actions regarding the policy matter.
A detailed table of contents provides the reader with a guide to each of the policy
themes discussed. Footnotes in each section of the report provide references to more
detailed information on particular topics related to each policy theme.
This report will only be updated if circumstances warrant.



Contents
In troduction ......................................................1
Strengthening the Intelligence Function................................1
Commission Concerns and Recommendations.......................1
Congressional Responses........................................2
Intelligence Oversight: Congressional Options...........................3
Commission Concerns and Recommendations.......................3
Congressional Responses........................................3
Improving Transitions Between Administrations.........................5
Commission Concerns and Recommendations.......................5
Congressional Responses........................................6
Enacted Provisions.........................................6
Related Potential Congressional Concerns for the 110th............9
Afghanistan and Terrorism.........................................10
Commission Concerns and Recommendations......................10
Congressional Responses.......................................11
Future Considerations.....................................12
Pakistan and Terrorism............................................13
Commission Concerns and Recommendations......................13
Congressional Responses.......................................14
Foreign Assistance........................................14
Coalition Support Funds...................................15
Saudi Arabia and Terrorism.........................................15
Commission Concerns and Recommendations......................15
Congressional Responses.......................................16
Provisions Enacted........................................16
Related Options Also Considered............................17
Terrorism: Its Global Dimensions....................................17
Commission Concerns and Recommendations......................17
Congressional Responses.......................................18
Legislation Enacted.......................................18
Policy Concerns Not Addressed or Postponed..................18
Islam and U.S. Policy..............................................19
Commission Concerns and Recommendations......................19
Congressional Responses.......................................19
Policy Concerns Not Addressed.................................20
Radical Islam in Europe....................................20
Islam in Politics..........................................21



Terrorism: U.S. Policy Instruments...................................21
Commission Concerns and Recommendations......................21
Congressional Responses.......................................21
Public Diplomacy, Education and Exchange Programs................22
Commission Concerns and Recommendations..................22
Congressional Response...................................22
Terrorist Financing................................................24
Commission Concerns and Recommendations......................24
Congressional Responses.......................................25
U.S. Military Forces and the War on Terrorism.........................27
Commission Concerns and Recommendations......................27
Congressional Responses.......................................27
Relevant Provisions Enacted by Congress......................27
Policy Concerns Not Addressed.............................28th
Options Considered by the 109 Congress.....................28
Weapons of Mass Destruction: Proliferation Security and Threat Reduction..28
Commission Concerns and Recommendations......................28
Congressional Responses.......................................29
Border Security and Immigration.....................................30
Terrorist Travel..............................................30
Commission Concerns and Recommendations..................30
Congressional Response...................................30
Terrorist Screening and Watch Lists..............................31
Commission Concerns and Recommendations..................31
Congressional Response...................................32
Related Administrative Response............................32
Biometric Screening System and Data Systems Integration............34
Commission Concerns and Recommendations..................34
Congressional Responses...................................34
Standards for Identification Documents...........................35
Commission Concerns and Recommendations..................35
Congressional Response...................................35
Other Immigration Concerns....................................36
Commission Concerns.....................................36
Congressional Response...................................36
Transportation Security............................................38
Aviation Security.............................................38
Commission Concerns and Recommendations..................38
Congressional Response...................................39
Policy Concerns Not Addressed In Enacted Legislation...........44
Port and Maritime Security.....................................45
Commission Concerns and Recommendations..................45
Congressional Response...................................45
Surface Transportation Security..................................47
Commission Concerns and Recommendations..................47
Status of Implementation of the Recommendations..............47



Critical Infrastructure Security.......................................48
Commission Concerns and Recommendations......................48
Congressional Responses.......................................49
Emergency Preparedness and Response and the 9/11 Commission..........51
Commission Concerns and Recommendations......................51
Congressional Responses.......................................52
Department of Defense and the 9/11 Commission.......................54
Commission Concerns and Recommendations......................54
Congressional Responses.......................................55
Homeland Security Oversight: Congressional Options....................55
Commission Concerns and Recommendations......................55
Congressional Responses.......................................55
Civil Liberties and Government Information Policies and Practices..........56
Driver’s Licenses, Personal Identification Cards, Birth Certificates, and
Social Security Numbers...................................56
Commission Concerns and Recommendations..................56
Congressional Responses...................................56
Future Considerations.....................................58
Protection of Civil Liberties.....................................59
Commission Concerns and Recommendations..................59
Congressional Responses...................................60
Balancing Security and Information Sharing........................62
Commission Concerns and Recommendations..................62
Congressional and Administrative Responses...................62
DHS Reorganization Related to Information Sharing.............67



9/11 Commission Recommendations:
Implementation Status
Introduction
This report provides a review of the 9/11 Commission recommendations and the
status of their implementation at the end of the 109th Congress. It is intended to
provide a structured road map to this end. The discussions herein are organized on
the basis of policy themes that are at the core of the 9/11 Commission’s
recommendations, rather than a review of every numbered item set out in the
Commission’s final report. The analysis was produced by a large team of CRS
Specialists, analysts, and attorneys who are responsible for the wide variety of policy
areas covered by the 9/11 Commission in its work. The authors of the varied
segments of this report are identified in footnotes. Each section of the report
summarizes the pertinent elements of the 9/11 Commission’s recommendations
relevant to that section’s policy theme. Then a review is made of responses made by
the Congress to implement, in whole or in part, the given recommendation. Where
appropriate, notice is taken of executive branch actions regarding the policy matter.
A detailed table of contents provides the reader with a guide to each of the policy
themes discussed. Footnotes in each section of the report provide references to more
detailed information on particular topics related to each policy theme.
Strengthening the Intelligence Function1
Commission Concerns and Recommendations
The 9/11 Commission concluded that the organization of the U.S. Intelligence
Community had contributed to a failure to develop a management strategy to counter
Islamic terrorism. The Commission recommended a major reordering of the
Intelligence Community to enable a single official to manage the entire national
intelligence effort and oversee the agencies that contribute to it. The Commission
also recommended the establishment of national intelligence centers, including a
National Counterterrorism Center (NCTC), to correlate and analyze information from
all sources on particular topics.
A principal recommendation of the Commission was the creation of the position
of Director of National Intelligence (DNI), separate from the Director of the Central
Intelligence Agency (CIA), who would have major statutory authorities over the


1 Prepared by Richard A. Best, Jr., Specialist in National Defense, Foreign Affairs, Defense
and Trade Division.

Intelligence Community’s 16 agencies, including the preparation of budgets, systems
acquisition, and the setting of personnel policies and standards for information use
throughout the Intelligence Community. The DNI would also be the principal
intelligence advisor to the President and would prepare national intelligence
estimates.
Congressional Responses
Congress responded to many of the recommendations of the 9/11 Commission
by passing the Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act of 2004 (P.L. 108-
458), hailed by some as the most important intelligence legislation since the National
Security Act of 1947. The Act established a DNI (along with a separate Director of
the CIA) and provided him with additional authorities beyond those that the former
Director of Central Intelligence (DCI) had over all intelligence agencies. The DNI
possesses substantial authorities to prepare the national intelligence budget and the
expenditure of funds appropriated for the national intelligence effort. The DNI also
is charged with establishing priorities for collection and analysis; and managing
intelligence centers composed of analysts from various intelligence and law
enforcement agencies.
Questions involving the DCI’s budgetary authorities were debated at length
during consideration of the legislation. The management and oversight authorities
proposed by the 9/11 Commission and reflected in some versions of intelligence
reform legislation appeared to some Members as complicating, undermining, or
replacing the authorities of the Secretary of Defense over intelligence agencies in the
Defense Department (in particular, the National Security Agency, National
Reconnaissance Office, and National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency, that are also
integral components of DOD’s warfighting capabilities). The agreement reflected
in the final legislation provides the DNI with authority to “develop and determine an
annual consolidated National Intelligence Program budget,” along with authorities
to manage appropriations, transfer or reprogram funds (within strict limitations),
transfer a limited number of personnel annually, and establish common information
technology standards. At the same time, the Act called for the President to issue
guidelines to ensure that the authorities granted to the DNI are implemented “in a
manner that respects and does not abrogate the statutory responsibilities” of other
departments including DOD. Some observers have suggested that the legislation has
not definitively resolved the question of the DNI’s responsibilities for the Defense
agencies in particular, and have argued that further legislative changes may be
required and/or that an effective solution will depend on the ability of the DNI and
the Secretary of Defense to work in close coordination.
To a large extent P.L. 108-458 adopted the recommendations of the 9/11
Commission regarding the organization of the Intelligence Community but it did not
centralize management of the Intelligence Community to the extent that at least some
on the 9/11 Commission would have preferred. As a result there remains a potential
that the national intelligence agencies within the Department of Defense may be
subject to conflicting guidance from the Secretary of Defense and the DNI. Thus far,
however, there has been little public controversy regarding the budgets of intelligence
agencies since the enactment of P.L. 108-458.



Intelligence Oversight: Congressional Options2
Commission Concerns and Recommendations
The 9/11 Commission stated that congressional oversight for intelligence and
counter-terrorism is “dysfunctional.” Commission members suggested two basic
alternatives for strengthening and improving Congress’s oversight of these policy
domains. The two recommendations were: (1) to create either a joint committee on
intelligence modeled after the former Joint Committee on Atomic Energy; or (2)
establish a committee in each chamber that has the authority to both authorize and
appropriate for intelligence agencies and activities. In addition, the commission
suggested that an intelligence committee should have a subcommittee specifically
dedicated to oversight; the panel should have subpoena authority; majority party
representation on the panel should exceed the minority by only one member; a
member from each of these panels — Armed Services, Judiciary, Foreign Affairs,
and the Defense Appropriations Subcommittee — should serve on an intelligence
committee; Members who serve on an intelligence committee should not be subject
to term limits; the staff of an intelligence committee should be nonpartisan and serve
the entire committee; and the size of an intelligence committee should range from
seven to nine members.
Congressional Responses
The House and Senate did not create a joint intelligence committee, nor did
either chamber consolidate authorizing and appropriating responsibility for the
intelligence community in a single committee. On the other hand, the two chambers
followed some but not all of the commission’s other recommendations.
In the House, the Permanent Select Intelligence Committee for the 109th
Congress has an oversight subcommittee, subpoena authority, and members who
serve also on the Defense Appropriations Subcommittee and the Armed Services,
Judiciary, and International Relations Committees. The House panel’s ratio of
majority to minority party members does not, however, track the commission’s
recommendation. The House Permanent Select Intelligence Committee’s size is
larger than nine; its members are subject to tenure limitations with exceptions for the
chair and ranking minority member; and it has a partisan staff model.
In October 2004, the Senate adopted S.Res. 445, which made a number of
changes affecting oversight of the intelligence community. Some of the
recommendations in S.Res. 445 parallel the commission’s ideas, while others are
new proposals agreed to by the Senate. The ideas in S.Res. 445 that affect the Select
Intelligence Committee, and which generally emulate the commission’s proposals,
are these: an oversight subcommittee; subpoena authority; a one-seat margin for the
majority party; a two-seat representation on the panel from each of these committees:
Appropriations, Armed Services, Foreign Relations, and Judiciary; moreover,


2 Prepared by Walter J. Oleszek, Senior Specialist in the Legislative Process, Government
and Finance Division.

Intelligence members are not subject to term limits. On the other hand, the Select
Intelligence Committee employs a partisan staff model and its size is larger than nine
members.
S.Res. 445 made a number of other changes affecting the Select Intelligence
Committee. These include granting the Majority Leader formal authority to name the
chairman, and the Minority Leader the vice chairman, of the panel; authorizing the
chair and vice chair of the Intelligence panel to name, respectively, the chair and vice
chair of any subcommittee; assigning to the panel jurisdiction over civilian
nominations to advice-and-consent positions within the intelligence community;
permitting each Intelligence member to appoint a staff aide to the committee (subject
to appropriate security clearances); allocating committee staff resources between the
parties on a 60/40 ratio, excluding staff designees appointed by individual Senators;
expanding current requirements that the Intelligence Committee report periodically
to the Senate on its findings and to require such reports quarterly; elevating the
Select Intelligence Committee to a category “A” assignment status; obligating the
panel to consult with the Majority Leader and Minority Leader about the disclosure
of classified information given to the committee by the executive branch; and
reducing what are called “on demand sequential referrals” from 30 days to 10 days.
S.Res. 445 recommended that the Committee on Appropriations “shall
reorganize into 13 subcommittees as soon as possible after the convening of the 109th
Congress.” The Senate Committee on Appropriations did not establish its customary
13 subcommittees. Bicameral discussions at the start of the 109th Congress
involving, among others, the majority party leaders and the respective House and
Senate Appropriations chairs, led to a downsizing and reshuffling of Appropriations
subcommittees and jurisdictions.
In mid-February 2005, the House panel established 10 subcommittees,
eliminating three (District of Columbia, Legislative Branch, and VA-HUD). A few
weeks later the Senate Appropriations Committee created 12 subcommittees. The
panel retained its District of Columbia and Legislative Branch subcommittees, but,
like the House, it eliminated its VA-HUD subcommittee and transferred its
jurisdiction to other Appropriations subcommittees. One goal of revamping the
organizational structure of the two Appropriations Committees is to minimize the
need for end-of-year appropriations measures.
The recommendation in S.Res. 445 for an Appropriations Subcommittee on
Intelligence was not acted upon by the Committee on Appropriations during the 109th
Congress. The Resolution stated that the proposed Intelligence subcommittee “shall
have jurisdiction over funding for intelligence matters, as determined by the Senate
Committee on Appropriations.” A Senate Appropriations member indicated that it
would be difficult to create a subcommittee with a classified budget. The 9/11
Commission recommended public disclosure of the nation’s budget for intelligence,
which has not been agreed to by the Congress.3


3 For further information generally, see CRS Report RS21955, S.Res. 445: Senate
Committee Reorganization for Homeland Security and Intelligence Matters, by Paul
(continued...)

Improving Transitions Between Administrations4
Commission Concerns and Recommendations
The 9/11 Commission Report5 included a general recommendation that
appointments to key national security positions at the time of presidential transitions
occur more quickly. The goal of the 9/11 Commission’s recommended changes was
to “minimize as much as possible the disruption of national security policymaking”
and maintain national security continuity when a new President comes into office.
The recommendation addressed the commission’s concern about the length of time
a new Administration takes to install key national security personnel. The
commission noted, in particular, the abbreviated transition period resulting from the
delayed resolution of the 2000 presidential race. The report stated, “Given that a
presidential election in the United States brings wholesale change in personnel, this
loss of time hampered the new administration in identifying, recruiting, clearing, and
obtaining Senate confirmation of key appointees.”6 As a result, the commission
reported, “the new administration did not have its deputy cabinet officers in place
until the spring of 2001, and the critical subcabinet officials were not confirmed until
the summer — if then. In other words, the new administration — like others before
it — did not have its team on the job until at least six months after it took office.”7
In line with its overall recommendation, the commission called for seven
specific changes, six of which are related to presidential appointments and
transitions. Two of these proposed changes are related to the national security
clearance process during transitions. First, the commission recommended starting the
security clearance process for prospective appointees to national security positions
immediately after the presidential election. It also proposed that, prior to the
election, each presidential candidate provide to the FBI “the names of selected
members” of his or her prospective transition team to facilitate quicker security
clearances following the election.
Three additional recommendations would modify the nomination and Senate
consideration processes for certain national security positions. First, the report


3 (...continued)
Rundquist and Christopher Davis. For historical background on the public disclosure issue,
see CRS Report 94-261, Intelligence Spending: Public Disclosure Issues, by Richard A.
Best, Jr. and Elizabeth B. Bazan.
4 Prepared by Henry B. Hogue, Analyst in American National Government, and Frederick
M. Kaiser, Specialist in American National Government, Government and Finance Division.
5 U.S. National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States, The 9/11
Commission Report (Washington: GPO, 2004), p. 422.
6 9/11 Commission Report, p. 198.
7 9/11 Commission Report, p. 422.

proposed that all nominations to positions on the “national security team”8 be
submitted to the Senate by the President-elect no later than the date of his or her
inauguration. Furthermore, the commission called for the Senate to “adopt special
rules requiring hearings and votes to confirm or reject national security nominees
within 30 days of their submission.” The final recommended change to the
appointment process would be the elimination of advice and consent requirements
for any “national security team” members below Level III of the Executive Schedule.
The commission also suggested that, beginning immediately after the election,
the transition include a prompt and thorough written national security information
exchange between the outgoing and incoming Administrations.
In addition to these six changes, the commission called for centralization of the
security clearance process in one agency, including providing and maintaining
security clearances and ensuring uniform standards.9
Congressional Responses
Enacted Provisions. The Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act10
of 2004 (hereafter the “Intelligence Reform Act”) included several provisions that
responded to commission concerns and recommendations. The legislation amended
the Presidential Transition Act of 1963 to (1) recommend submission by the
President-elect to the agency with national security clearance functions of the “names
of candidates for high level national security positions through the level of
undersecretary” of agencies and departments, as soon as possible after the
presidential election; (2) require the responsible agency or agencies to carry out
background investigations of these candidates for high-level national security
positions “as expeditiously as possible ... before the date of the inauguration”; and
(3) authorize “relevant outgoing executive branch officials” to prepare a “detailed
classified, compartmented summary ... of specific operational threats to national
security; major military or covert operations; and pending decisions on possible uses
of military force,” which would be provided to the President-elect and Vice
President-elect as soon as possible after the general election.11
Just as the Intelligence Reform Act seeks to facilitate more rapid security
clearances for top national security position candidates, it also does so for transition
team members. It allows each major party presidential candidate to submit, before the
general election, security clearance requests for “prospective transition team
members who will have a need for access to classified information” in the course of
their work. The law directs that resulting investigations and eligibility


8 The phrase “national security team” was not defined in the report.
9 9/11 Commission Report, p. 422.
10 P.L. 108-458, 118 Stat. 3638.
11 P.L. 108-458, Sec. 7601(a).

determinations be completed, as much as possible, by the day after the general
el ect i on. 12
The Intelligence Reform Act also expresses “the sense of the Senate” about a
timetable for submission and consideration of high-level national security
nominations during transitions. Under this timetable, nominations to such positions
should be submitted by the President-elect to the Senate by Inauguration Day, and
Senate consideration of all such nominations should be completed within 30 days of
submission.13 Because most presidential appointees are subject to a limited “vetting”
process and not a full-scale security clearance investigation and adjudication, these
changes may have a significant impact on the duration and difficulty of the
confirmation process. A personnel security clearance investigation, for instance, is
normally more exhaustive and longer than the usual “vetting” process for potential
nominees. A background investigation for access to the highest clearance level —
Top Secret with access to Sensitive Compartmented Information — may take a year.
That is because the process requires a full field investigation, including interviews
with former colleagues and employers, neighbors, friends, and acquaintances, along
with checks of databases from law enforcement entities, financial services, and, to
a degree, medical services.
The Intelligence Reform Act also made government-wide changes to the
national security clearance process that are designed to consolidate and streamline
this function. Concerns have long existed over the substantial backlog, delays, and
time consumed in initial background investigations and subsequent re-investigations
associated with gaining access to classified national security information. These
problems have been exacerbated by the increased number of personnel requiring
access to classified information and the growth of materials being classified or being
classified at higher levels; both of these changes, in turn, have been driven by the
expanding programs in national and homeland security. Other reasons for seeking
improvements in the clearance process, especially the background investigations, are
(1) the lack of reciprocity among agencies, so that one federal agency may not accept
the findings of investigations previously conducted for another federal agency; and
(2) questions about the capacity of existing agencies to handle the increased workload
(or overload) in light of its size and recent growth.14
The Intelligence Reform Act required the President to designate a single
executive entity to oversee and develop uniform standards and policies for access to
classified information and to designate other investigative agencies, if appropriate,


12 P.L. 108-458, Sec. 7601(c).
13 P.L. 108-458, Sec. 7601(b).
14 U.S. House Committee on Government Reform, What’s the Hold Up? A Review of
Security Clearance Backlog and Reciprocity Issues Plaguing Today’s Government andthnd
Private Sector Workforce, hearings, 108 Congress, 2 sess. (Washington: GPO, 2004).
At the same time, the Department of Defense transferred the background investigation
function and related personnel to the Office of Personnel Management, which now handles
about 90% of all federal background investigations.

for national security and efficiency purposes.15 The statute further stipulated that
reciprocity should be the rule among agencies for clearances at the same level and the
legislation established a national database to track clearances. The head of the entity
charged with overseeing the process is to evaluate and report to Congress on the use
of available technology in clearance investigations and adjudications, as well as to
consult with Congress and adjudicative agencies in developing a plan, within five
years, to reduce the length of the clearance process.
The first step along this new path was undertaken during the 109th Congress,
with the Office of Personnel Management (OPM) designated as the lead agency in
conducting security clearance background checks under the guidance and oversight
of the Deputy Director of OMB. Certain deadlines and a reciprocity requirement
among agencies have also been established to speed up the process and make it less
costly and more efficient. Setting this in motion was an executive order issued by
President George W. Bush, designed to strengthen and speed up processes to
determine eligibility for access to classified national security information.16 In the
order, the President called upon the Director of the Office of Management and
Budget (OMB) to develop the policy for meeting the following goals: “To the extent
consistent with safeguarding the security of the United States and protecting
classified national security information from unauthorized disclosure, agency
functions relating to determining eligibility for access to classified national security
information shall be appropriately uniform, centralized, efficient, effective, timely,
and reciprocal.”17


15 P.L. 108-458, Title III, Sec. 3001(c).
16 Executive Order 13381, “Strengthening Processes Relating to Determining Eligibility for
Access to Classified National Security Information,” issued by President George W. Bush,
June 27, 2005, 70 Federal Register 37953, June 30, 2005.
17 Ibid., Sec. 1. In developing the plan, the OMB Deputy Director was required to consult
with the heads of the Departments of State, Defense, Justice, Energy, and Homeland
Security, as well as the Director of the Office of Personnel Management (OPM) and the
Director of National Intelligence (DNI). The OMB Director issued guidelines and
instructions to the heads of agencies to ensure such goals. A separate section covers
Sensitive Compartmented Information, that information generated by way of intelligence
sources and methods, and special access programs pertaining to intelligence activities,
including special activities or covert operations. The Deputy Director for Management at
OMB has been delegated responsibility for carrying out the order. Along with this,
specialized areas of responsibility have been assigned to the Directors of OPM and of
National Intelligence as well as to the Assistant to the President for National Security
Affairs. The particulars of the plan and its production are covered in several executive
reports, testimony before Congress, and a Government Accountability Office (GAO) report.
See U.S. Office of Management and Budget, Report on the Status of Executive Branch
Efforts to Improve the Security Clearance Process Required under Title III of Public Law
108-458 (Washington: OMB, 2006), and Plan for Improving the Personnel Security
Clearance Process (Washington: OMB, 2005); and Kathy L. Dillaman, Associate Director,
Federal Investigative Services Division, OPM, testimony on Human Capital Issues and
Security Clearance Procedures, before the Subcommittee on Management, Integration, and
Oversight, House Committee on Homeland Security, May 18, 2006. GAO, however, has
found continuing weaknesses in this area; see U.S. Government Accountability Office, DOD
(continued...)

The Intelligence Reform Act also contained appointment process-related
provisions18 that were not specifically recommended by the 9/11 Commission. These
included provisions that (1) require a report from the Office of Government Ethics
(OGE) regarding potential improvements to the financial disclosure process for
executive branch employees;19 (2) direct the Office of Personnel Management (OPM)
to transmit an electronic record “on Presidentially appointed positions,” with
specified contents, to each major party presidential candidate soon after his or her
nomination, and to make such a record available to any other presidential candidate
after this; (3) direct each agency head to submit an advice and consent position
reduction plan, with specified contents, to the President, the Senate Committee on
Governmental Affairs (as of the 109th Congress, the Senate Committee on Homeland
Security and Governmental Affairs), and the House Committee on Government
Reform;20 and (4) require the Director of OGE, in consultation with the Attorney
General, to “conduct a comprehensive review of conflict of interest laws relating to
Federal employment,” with specified contents and recipients.21
Although the Intelligence Reform Act addressed each of the recommendations
in this section of the 9/11 Report, its provisions were generally not identical to the
commission’s recommended actions. For example, whereas the commission
recommended that the “Senate should not require confirmation of [national security]
executive appointees below Executive Level 3,” the statute requires agencies to
submit advice and consent position reduction plans to the President and
congressional committees.
Related Potential Congressional Concerns for the 110th. The
presidential transition process changes called for by the 9/11 Commission and
provided for in the Intelligence Reform Act are arguably more critical to national
security continuity at the time of a transition between Presidents than between the
first and second terms of a two-term President. Nonetheless, some top-level national
security positions changed hands at the beginning of the second George W. Bushth
Administration, and Congress may elect to conduct oversight, during the 110
Congress, on the implementation of the modifications to the presidential transition
process. Congress might also elect to conduct oversight regarding provisions that
would be implemented during the run-up to the 2008 presidential election.
Changes to the national security clearance process under the Intelligence Reform
Act extend beyond the presidential transition and presidential appointment processes.


17 (...continued)
Personnel Clearances: Additional OMB Actions Are Needed to Improve the Security
Clearance Process, GAO-06-1070 (Washington: GAO, 2006).
18 P.L. 108-458, Sec. 8403.
19 OGE submitted this report on March 17, 2005. It is available at [http://www.usoge.gov
/pages/forms_pubs_otherdocs/fpo_files/ reports_plans/rpogc_fin_dis_03_05.pdf].
20 At the end of the 109th Congress, staffers for both of the congressional committees
indicated that only a few agencies had submitted the required PAS position reduction plans.
21 OGE submitted this report in Jan. 2006. It is available at [http://www.usoge.gov/pages/
forms_pubs_otherdocs/fpo_files/reports_plans/rpt_title18.pdf].

Some changes are designed to modernize the national security clearance process, by
adding new formal requirements (e.g., for reciprocity among agencies) and by
consolidating the process under a single entity, the Office of Personnel Management,
with guidance and supervision under the Deputy Director of the Office of
Management and Budget. The implementation of these and other new developments
might become the subjects of congressional oversight, to determine whether the
changes are proceeding as expected, whether their goals are being met, whether
legislative intent is being followed, what the implementation costs are, and what
other modifications might be necessary.
Several provisions of the law reflect ongoing concern among some Members of
Congress about the length and complexity of the presidential appointment process.
The last several Congresses have seen efforts to develop consensus, inter alia, on
streamlining executive branch financial disclosure requirements; reducing the
number of positions requiring Senate confirmation for appointment; and simplifying
conflict of interest laws and decriminalizing conflict of interest. With the submission
of reports to Congress concerning these topics, required by the Intelligence Reform
Act, discussions regarding possible changes may be renewed during the 110th
Congress.
Congress might elect to revisit provisions contained in earlier versions of the
intelligence legislation that were not included in the enacted law. These include
proposed changes to provisions of the Federal Vacancies Reform Act of 1998 that
would make it easier for the President to make long-term temporary appointments to
advice and consent positions during presidential transitions.22
Other appointments-related issues could be of interest in the 110th Congress.
For example, it is possible that the Senate may attempt to change its floor procedures
concerning nominations. In addition, issues related to recess appointments may come
to the fore. At times, for instance, the President’s use of his recess appointment
power has been seen as circumventing the Senate confirmation process and has
proven controversial.
Afghanistan and Terrorism23
Commission Concerns and Recommendations
The 9/11 Commission Report (p. 370) praised the U.S. efforts in Afghanistan
to that date, but emphasized the need for a sustained, long-term commitment by the
United States and the international community to Afghanistan’s stability and
security,24 in order to prevent Afghanistan from “again becom[ing] a sanctuary for


22 See 108th Cong., H.R. 10, § 5042.
23 Prepared by Kenneth Katzman, Specialist in Middle Eastern Affairs, Foreign Affairs,
Defense, and Trade Division.
24 For further information on U.S. efforts to stabilize Afghanistan, see CRS Report
(continued...)

international crime and terrorism.” The Commission was far-reaching in its
recommendations, calling for greater peacekeeping participation by international
forces, particularly NATO; stepped up counter-narcotics activities, disarmament of
regional militias, and efforts to promote rule of law; and follow through on funding
pledges with increased flexibility in allocating money for relief and reconstruction.25
Most of the recommendations had already formed major pillars of
Administration policy on post-Taliban Afghanistan, and these efforts accelerated
after the release of the 9/11 report. Key milestones in the U.S. stabilization effort
were the October 9, 2004 presidential election, in which interim leader Hamid
Karzai was elected, and the September 18, 2005 elections for a 249 seat lower house
of parliament, and subsequent selections to a 102-seat upper house.
The Commission recommendation for increased NATO participation in
Afghanistan peacekeeping has, by most accounts, been implemented. As of October
5, 2005, NATO now has overall control of peacekeeping operations throughout
Afghanistan, including the volatile and violent south and east of the country.
NATO’s force in Afghanistan now numbers about 31,000, including about 11,250
U.S. forces. NATO countries run 13 of the 25 total “provincial reconstruction
teams” (PRTs) – regional civilian-military enclaves intended to promote security and
reconstruction.
The United States, Afghanistan, and the international community have also had
significant success over the past few years in disarming regional militiamen – a
“disarmament, demobilization, and reintegration program (DDR), run jointly by the
United Nations, Japan, and the United States, resulted in the disarmament of 63,000
private militiamen by the June 2005 close-out of the program, according to U.S. and
U.N. officials. A follow-on program, called Disarmament of Illegal Armed Groups
(DIAG) is currently in the process of attempting to disband several hundred illegal
militia groups around Afghanistan, although progress is said to be slow.
Counter-narcotics programs, on the other hand, have not been as successful.
U.N. officials estimate that a record opium poppy crop was produced in Afghanistan
during the 2005-2006 season that supplied 92% of the world’s illicit opium and
reversed a slight reduction that occurred from 2004-2005. U.S., Afghan, and
international officials have cited the cultivation and trafficking as a serious strategic
threat to U.S.-led efforts to stabilize and reconstruct Afghanistan.
Congressional Responses
The 108th and 109th Congresses have acted to implement at least some of the
Commission’s recommendations. The Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention
Act of 2004 (P.L. 108-458) contained a subtitle called “The Afghanistan Freedom
Support Act Amendments of 2004.” The subtitle mandated the appointment of a


24 (...continued)
RL30588, Afghanistan: Post-War Governance, Security, and U.S. Policy, by Kenneth
Katzman.
25 See The 9/11 Commission Report, Section 12.2, Recommendation No. 3.

U.S. coordinator of policy on Afghanistan in order to streamline and instill greater
flexibility and inter-agency cooperation in the administration of U.S. programs in
Afghanistan. The subtitle also required additional Administration reports to
Congress on progress in reconstruction. In addition, the subtitle contained “sense
of Congress” provisions recommending more rapid disarmament of private militias;
expansion of the NATO-led peacekeeping force; and new initiatives to combat
narcotics trafficking. The subtitle did not specify dollar amounts for U.S. aid to
Afghanistan for FY2005 and FY2006, authorizing instead “such sums as may be
necessary for each of the fiscal years 2005 and 2006.”
In appropriations legislation, the 108th and 109th Congresses have sought to
address the need for reconstruction funds. For FY2005, a total of $4.3 billion was
appropriated for programs in Afghanistan, from a regular foreign aid appropriation
(P.L. 108-447) and a supplemental (P.L. 109-13). Of those funds, about $1.6 billion
was earmarked to equip and train the Afghan National Army (ANA) and Afghan
National Policy (ANP). Slightly less was appropriated for FY2006 – a total of about
$3.05 billion in a regular appropriation (P.L. 109-102) and a supplemental (P.L. 109-
234). The FY2006 funds include a total of about $2 billion to train and equip the
ANA and the ANP. As noted above, building up the ANA is a key recommendation
of the September 11 Commission so that the central government can extend its writ
and services throughout Afghanistan.
Future Considerations.For FY2007, some funding for Afghanistan awaits
congressional action. The Administration requested $1.1 billion for civilian
reconstruction programs, including counter-narcotics, and congressional action on
these funds has not been completed to date, although both House and Senate versions
fund roughly the total amounts requested. The FY2007 Defense appropriation (P.L.
109-289) provides $1.5 billion to train and equip the ANA and ANP and provides
$100 million for Defense Department counter-narcotics support activities for
Afghanistan. Some experts believe that the upsurge in Taliban opposition violence
during 2006 is a product of popular frustration at the slow pace of reconstruction,
particularly in southern Afghanistan, and several experts believe the remedy for this
is accelerated reconstruction.



Pakistan and Terrorism26
Commission Concerns and Recommendations
The 9/11 Commission Report emphasizes that the mounting of large-scale
international terrorist attacks appears to require sanctuaries in which terrorist groups
can plan and operate with impunity. In addition to identifying Pakistan as a principal
transit country for the 9/11 hijackers and naming the western regions of the country
as one of six “actual or potential terrorist sanctuaries” worldwide, the report warns
that Pakistan’s “vast unpoliced regions” remain attractive to extremist groups. The
first recommendation of the Commissioners is identification and prioritization of
terrorist sanctuaries and the development of a realistic strategy for denying them to
terrorists.
In its country-specific discussion, The 9/11 Commission Report further claims
that—even after acknowledging problems in U.S.-Pakistan relations and President
Musharraf’s role in them—“Musharraf’s government is the best hope for stability in
Pakistan and Afghanistan.” It recommends that the United States make a long-term
commitment to provide comprehensive support for Islamabad so long as Pakistan
itself is committed to combating extremism and to a policy of “enlightened
moderation.” Specifically, the Commission urges sustaining U.S. assistance to
Pakistan at “current scale” with programs that extend from military aid to support for
better education.27 A November 2005 follow-on report by Commissioners gave a
“C” grade to U.S. efforts to support Pakistan’s anti-extremism policies and warned
that the country “remains a sanctuary and training ground for terrorists.”
The issue of a long-term U.S. commitment to supporting Pakistan is key for
many analysts, as past experiences have engendered Pakistani skepticism regarding
the strategic (as opposed to tactical) reliability of the United States as an ally. Many
Bush Administration officials, Members of Congress, and independent analysts
remain concerned about the continued existence in Pakistan of terrorist groups and
their supporters, evidence that Pakistan has been the source of significant “onward”


26 Prepared by K. Alan Kronstadt, Specialist in Asian Affairs, Foreign Affairs, Defense, and
Trade Division. See also CRS Report RL33498, Pakistan-U.S. Relations, CRS Report
RL32259, Terrorism in South Asia, CRS Report RL32615, Pakistan’s Domestic Political
Developments, and CRS Report RS22009, Education Reform in Pakistan, all by K. Alan
Kronstadt; and CRS Report RL32745, Pakistan’s Nuclear Proliferation Activities and the
Recommendations of the 9/11 Commission, by Richard Cronin, K. Alan Kronstadt, and
Sharon Squassoni.
27 See Sections 12.1 and 12.2 (p. 361-374) of The 9/11 Commission Report. The concept
of “enlightened moderation,” as expounded by Musharraf himself, is a direct response to a
growing world perception that Islam is linked to fundamentalism, and thus to extremism,
and thus to terrorism. It is a strategy meant to both shun the militancy that is rooted in
“political injustice, denial, and deprivation,”and to bring “socioeconomic uplift”in the
Muslim world. Musharraf has called upon Muslims to “adopt a path of moderation and a
conciliatory approach to fight the common belief that Islam is a religion of militancy in
conflict with modernization, democracy, and secularism” (Pervez Musharraf, “A Plea for
Enlightened Moderation,” Washington Post, June 1, 2004).

proliferation of nuclear weapons materials and technologies to third parties, and
continuing human rights abuses, including perceived nondemocratic practices, by the
military-dominated government in Islamabad.
Congressional Responses
In passing the Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act of 2004 (P.L.
108-458), the 108th Congress broadly endorsed the Pakistan-specific 9/11
Commission recommendations. Section 7103 of the bill, entitled “United States
Commitment to the Future of Pakistan,” called for U.S. aid to Pakistan to be
sustained at a minimum of FY2005 levels and required the President to report to
Congress a description of a long-term U.S. strategy to engage with and support
Pakistan. It further extended the President’s authority to waive coup-related
sanctions on Pakistan through FY2006, allowing continued U.S. military and
economic assistance to Pakistan despite the 1999 overthrow of an elected
government in Islamabad.
Foreign Assistance. In June 2003, President Bush vowed to work with
Congress on establishing a five-year, $3 billion aid package for Pakistan. Annual
installments of $600 million each began in FY2005 and are split evenly between
military and economic aid. The Foreign Operations FY2005 Appropriations bill
(P.L. 108-447) established a new base program of $300 million for military
assistance for Pakistan. When additional funds for development assistance, law
enforcement, and other programs are included, the aid allocation for FY2005 was
about $688 million. Significant increases in economic support, along with relief
funding in response to Pakistan’s devastating October 2005 earthquake, may bring
the FY2006 total to around $874 million. The Bush Administration’s FY2007
request calls for another $739 million in aid to Pakistan, although the House
Appropriations Committee (H.Rept. 109-486) recommended reducing that amount
by $150 million (ostensibly for domestic budgetary reasons unrelated to Pakistan-
U.S. relations). In S.Rept. 109-277, the Senate Appropriations Committee called for
redirecting some of the requested FY2007 U.S. economic aid to Pakistan toward
development and democracy promotion programs there (House and Senate
committees have issued separate concerns about “the slow pace of the democratic
development of Pakistan”).
In the five years since September 2001, Pakistan has received nearly $1.5 billion
in direct U.S. security-related assistance (Foreign Military Financing totaling $970
million plus about $516 million for other programs). Congress has taken no action
to block major U.S. arms sales to Pakistan during this period, including the multi-
billion dollar sale of F-16 combat aircraft currently in process.28 Programs overseen
by USAID in Pakistan include those aimed at strengthening that country’s democratic


28 Other major government-to-government arms sales and grants in recent years have
included C-130 military transport aircraft, P-3C Orion maritime patrol aircraft, AH-1F
Cobra attack helicopters, F-16 combat aircraft, surveillance radars, air traffic control
systems, military radio systems, Harpoon anti-ship missiles, Phalanx guns, and TOW anti-
armor missiles. Other pending sales include Sidewinder air-to-air missiles and self-
propelled howitzers.

institutions and civil society, reforming the education sector, alleviating poverty,
improving health, and bolstering macroeconomic stability while stimulating
economic growth. Such efforts have been funded with some $2 billion since
September 2001 (Economic Support Funds of nearly $1.7 billion plus $288 million
for other programs). Congress also has eased Islamabad’s foreign debt burden by
authorizing Pakistan to use $388 million in economic support to cancel about $1.5
billion in concessional debt to the U.S. government.
Coalition Support Funds. In addition to the foreign assistance discussed
above, Congress has appropriated billions of dollars to reimburse Islamabad for its
support of U.S.-led counterterrorism operations (Pakistan has since 2002 been
undertaking military operations along its border with Afghanistan). As of December
2006, a total of $6.65 billion had been appropriated for FY2002-FY2007 Defense
Department spending for coalition support payments to “Pakistan, Jordan, and other
key cooperating nations.” Pentagon documents indicate that disbursements to
Islamabad— averaging about $66 million per month—account for the majority of
these funds. This amount is roughly equal to one-fifth of Pakistan’s total military
expenditures. The Defense Department Appropriations Act, 2007 (P.L. 109-289)
allows that up to $900 million in Pentagon funds be used for FY2007
reimbursements.
Saudi Arabia and Terrorism29
Commission Concerns and Recommendations
The September 11, 2001 attacks kindled criticism within the United States of
alleged official Saudi involvement in terrorism or of Saudi laxity in acting against
terrorist groups. Some critics believe that Saudi domestic and foreign policies have
created a climate that may have contributed to terrorist acts by Islamic radicals.
Critics, for example, have cited reports that the Saudi government permitted or
encouraged fund raising by allegedly charitable institutions with links to Al-Qaeda.
Saudi leaders maintain that they are working to suppress terrorism, which they say
is aimed even more at the Saudi regime than at the United States. The U.S. State
Department acknowledges a more proactive Saudi stance against terrorist groups
since terrorist attacks on Saudi Arabia in 2003.
In its July 2004 report, the 9/11 Commission described Saudi Arabia as having
been “a problematic ally in combating Islamic extremism.” The report took note of
long-standing cooperative relations between the U.S. and Saudi governments and
acknowledged the integral role of charitable donations in the Islamic religion. At the
same time, the report noted a lack of oversight mechanisms to monitor charitable
spending in Saudi Arabia, misunderstandings between the United States and Saudi
Arabia at the popular level, and recent reform measures adopted by the Saudi
Government. In its recommendations, the Commission states that the United States
and Saudi Arabia must confront openly the problems in their relationship and


29 Prepared by Alfred B. Prados, Specialist in Middle East Affairs, and Christopher M.
Blanchard, Analyst in Middle East Affairs, Foreign Affairs, Defense, and Trade Division.

“determine if they can build a relationship that both sides are prepared to publicly
defend – a relationship about more than oil.” The report went on to urge a “shared
commitment” to political and economic reform” in Saudi Arabia and a “shared
interest in greater tolerance and cultural respect,” as a means of fighting violent
extremists.30 In late 2005, U.S. and Saudi officials initiated a “strategic dialogue” to
expand cooperation in six key areas: counterterrorism, military affairs, energy,
business, education and human development, and consular affairs.
Congressional Responses
Provisions Enacted. Relevant sections of the Intelligence Reform and
Terrorism Prevention Act of 2004 (P.L. 108-458) capture many of the concerns
reflected in the 9/11 Commission report regarding Saudi Arabia. Section 7105(a)
contains findings which review problems in the bilateral relationship but note
improvements in counter-terrorism cooperation between the two countries since mid-
2003. Section 7105(b) expresses the sense of Congress that “there should be a more
robust dialogue between the people and Government of the United States and the
people and Government of Saudi Arabia.” Section 7120(b) required the President
to submit to Congress within 180 days a strategy for collaboration with Saudi Arabia,
as part of a larger report on U.S. government activities to implement the provisions
of this act. The strategy paper was to include steps to institutionalize U.S.-Saudi
relationships, intelligence and security cooperation, ways to increase Saudi
contributions to peace and stability in the Middle East, political and economic
reform, ways to promote tolerance and diversity in Saudi Arabia, and ways to
diminish support from Saudi sources to extremist groups. The Administration
transmitted the classified report to designated congressional committees on
September 7, 2005.31
Though not directly addressed as an issue in the 9/11 Commission Report, some
Members of Congress have criticized the U.S. military assistance program of $20-

25,000 per year under the International Military Education and Training (IMET)


program because of what they perceive to be the failure of Saudi authorities to
suppress terrorist activity and incitement. House amendments to the Foreign
Operations Appropriations Acts for FY2005 (incorporated as Division D of the
FY2005 Consolidated Appropriations Act, P.L. 108-447, December 8, 2004) and
FY2006 [P.L.109-102] banned U.S. aid to Saudi Arabia. However, Senate versions
of both bills did not include such bans, and presidential national security waiver
authority was included in the final versions of both pieces of legislation. President
Bush exercised his waiver authority in FY2005, but did not issue a waiver for
FY2006 funds because, according to State Department officials, FY2006 funds
appropriated for use in Saudi Arabia were not obligated. On June 9, 2006, the House


30 For additional information, see CRS Report RL33533, Saudi Arabia: Current Issues and
U.S. Relations and CRS Report RL32499, Saudi Arabia: Terrorist Financing Issues, both
by Alfred B. Prados and Christopher M. Blanchard.
31 House Committee on International Relations, Survey of Activities, Week of September
6, 2005: Letter Transmitting Report – September 7, 2005, CLASSIFIED, Department of
State, pursuant to Sec. 7120 of the Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act, 2004
(P.L. 108-458); Ex. Comm. 3684.

adopted H.Amdt. 997 to the Foreign Operations Appropriations Act for FY2007
(H.R. 5522) by 312-97 (Roll no. 244); the amendment prohibits U.S. assistance to
Saudi Arabia and contains no presidential waiver provision. H.R. 5522 passed the
House on June 9; the Senate has not passed its version as of November 20.
Related Options Also Considered. Congressional concerns continueth
during the 109 Congress over the role of Saudi Arabia in the war against terrorism,
with particular emphasis on encouraging Saudi leaders to heighten their efforts
against terrorist financing. H.R. 2037/S. 1171, the Saudi Arabia Accountability Act
of 2005, is similar to the Saudi Arabia Accountability Act proposed but not enactedth
in the 108th Congress (H.R. 3643/S. 1888). Like the earlier bills, the 109 proposal
would prohibit export or issuance of an export license to Saudi Arabia for any U.S.
defense articles or defense services on the U.S. munitions list or dual use items and
would restrict travel of Saudi diplomats in the United States. S. 12, the Targeting
Terrorists More Effectively Act of 2005, introduced on January 24, 2005, contains
sections on Saudi Arabia including:
!A statement of U.S. policy to work with the Saudi government to
curtail terrorist financing through a variety of methods.
!Findings that Saudi Arabia has an uneven record in fighting
terrorism, especially with regard to terrorist financing, support for
radical madrasas (schools), and lack of political outlets for its
citizens; and that the Saudi government must undertake political and
economic reforms.
!A requirement for the President to submit a report to designated
congressional committees containing a long-term strategy for U.S.-
Saudi engagement and for effective prevention of terrorist
financing. 32
H.R. 2037, S. 1171, and S. 12 remained in committee and had not passed as of
November 30, 2006.
Terrorism: Its Global Dimensions33
(Denying Sanctuary and Building a Coalition)
Commission Concerns and Recommendations
The 9/11 Commission Report emphasizes the global nature of the terrorist
threat. It is portrayed as a threat that is motivated by religion. It is a threat consisting


32 Section 7120 of the Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act of 2004 (P.L. 108-
458) – required the President to submit a strategy as part of a larger reporting requirement
within 180 rather than 90 days, as explained above.
33 Prepared by Raphael Perl, Specialist in International Affairs, Foreign Affairs, Defense,
and Trade Division.

of a stateless network of terrorists. This threat with global dimensions is also
characterized as a radical ideological movement in the Islamic world, inspired in part
by al Qaeda. The Commission advocates attacking terrorist organizations as a
strategy and tactic for responding to the threat. It recommends that the United States
identify and prioritize terrorist sanctuaries, working with allies, and developing a
realistic strategy to keep terrorists insecure and on the run. As specific examples, it
refers to Pakistan, Afghanistan, and Saudi Arabia, but also identifies broader regions:
the Arabian Peninsula; Horn of Africa; Southeast Asia; West Africa; and European
cities. The National Strategy for Combating Terrorism, released by the Bush
Administration in September 2006, places strong emphasis on closing down terrorist
sanctuaries.
A second Commission recommendation relating to the global dimensions of
terrorism centers on turning a national strategy into a coalition strategy. To this end,
the Commission recommends that the United States engage other nations in
developing a comprehensive coalition strategy against Islamist terrorism. Included
here are joint strategies for targeting terrorist travel and a common strategy to deal
with sanctuaries.
The National Strategy for Combating Terrorism, released by the Bush Administration
in September 2006, also places strong emphasis on promoting international
cooperation in the global fight against terrorism.
Congressional Responses
Legislation Enacted. Many congressional decisions related to measures
designed to respond to the global terrorist threat are expected to be manifested
through the appropriations process. Title VII, of the Intelligence Reform and
Terrorism Prevention Act of 2004, P.L. 108-458, section 7102, mirrors Commission
recommendations by expressing a Sense of the Congress that it should be the policy
of the United States to identify terrorist sanctuaries, work with allies, and develop a
strategy to prevent terrorists from using foreign countries as sanctuaries. It also
requires a report from the President to Congress on terrorist sanctuaries and what is
being done to eliminate them. H.R. 4942, (109th Congress, Second Session), the
Promoting Antiterrorism Capabilities through International Cooperation Act, would
establish an office within DHS to promote international anti-terrorism cooperation.
Policy Concerns Not Addressed or Postponed. The issue of creating
a coalition is arguably, a matter best suited for diplomats and not legislators.
Notwithstanding, an office within DHS charged with promoting anti-terror
cooperation could arguably do much to enhance such cooperation. However, the
need for such cooperation, as envisioned by the 9/11 Commission, goes well beyond
the jurisdictional domain of DHS. In this regard, creation of a joint
congressional/executive branch commission to look at the overall issue of promoting
international anti-terror cooperation – similar in structure to the National
Commission on terrorism may warrant consideration.
Arguably also, physical sanctuaries are declining in overall importance to
terrorist groups which are becoming increasingly decentralized both geographically
and in terms of organizational hierarchy. This might warrant congressional
consideration of the pro’s and con’s of including the issue of use by terrorists of



virtual sanctuaries in any required reports to Congress on the issue of terrorist
sanctuaries.
Islam and U.S. Policy34
Commission Concerns and Recommendations
Since the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks, many experts have stated that
the fight against terrorism cannot be won using force alone; it must be accompanied
by long term policies that address development and reform issues in Arab and
Muslim-majority countries and by a sophisticated public diplomacy effort that seeks
to counter anti-American views commonly found in these countries. The 9/11
Commission Report’s recommendations on tempering extremism in the Middle East
and elsewhere echoed these sentiments. According to the report, “A comprehensive
U.S. strategy to counter terrorism should include economic policies that encourage
development, more open societies, and opportunities for people to improve the lives
of their families and to enhance prospects for their children's future.”
The 9/11 Commission Report also stressed that while U.S. public diplomacy,
trade and cultural exchange, and international assistance programs are necessary,
ultimately, it is our policies in the region that fuel anger and resentment. According
to the report, “Right or wrong, it is simply a fact that American policy regarding the
Israeli-Palestinian conflict and American actions in Iraq are dominant staples of
popular commentary across the Arab and Muslim world.” Increasingly, public debate
over how best to win the “struggle of ideas”in the Arab and Muslim world has shifted
away from the “means” (policy instruments) and toward the “ends” (overall direction
of U.S. policy). Critics charge that U.S. efforts to highlight its outreach and
assistance to Muslim societies has been overtaken by the negative Arab and Muslim
reaction to alleged human rights abuses at Abu Ghraib, and Guantanamo Bay.
Furthermore, many Arabs and Muslims feel that the United States continues to place
its strategic regional interests above those of human rights and democracy by
insufficiently protesting alleged abuses committed by friendly regional governments
under the guise of the war on terror.
Congressional Responses
Due to the complexity and broad scope of directives laid out by the 9/11
Commission Report, it has been difficult for the U.S. government, including
Congress, to address all of the various policy problems and solutions to the challenge
of Islamic extremism. P.L.108-458, the Intelligence Reform and Terrorism
Prevention Act of 2004, is one piece of legislation that addresses many of the 9/11
Commission Reports recommendations. However, P.L.108-458 only authorized the
expansion of existing programs; it did not appropriate new funds. For example,
P.L.108-458 authorized the following steps to expand U.S. public diplomacy efforts


34 Prepared by Jeremy M. Sharp, Middle East Policy Analyst, Foreign Affairs, Defense, and
Trade Division.

with the Muslim world and promote reform and democracy throughout the “broader
Middle East:”
!(section 7112) authorized a substantial expansion of U.S. exchange,
scholarship, and library programs that benefit people in the Muslim
world.
!(section 7112) authorized the creation of a pilot program to make
grants to United States-sponsored elementary and secondary schools
in countries with predominantly Muslim populations for the purpose
of providing full or partial merit-based scholarships to students from
lower-income and middle-income families of such countries to
attend such schools.
!(section 7113) authorized the establishment of an International
Youth Opportunity Fund to provide financial assistance for the
improvement of public education in the Middle East and other
countries of strategic interest with predominantly Muslim
populations.
!(section 7115) authorized the Middle East Partnership Initiative
(MEPI), an economic assistance program designed to promote
reform and democracy in the Arab world. MEPI, which Congress
had not previously authorized, has received $284 million since its
creation in FY2002.
For fiscal years 2005-2006 and possibly for fiscal year 2007, Congress has used
the appropriations process to expand funding for various government sponsored
activities such as cultural exchange, democracy promotion in the Arab world,
international broadcasting in Arabic and Farsi, and development assistance for
education and health. H.R. 5522, the FY2007 Foreign Operations Appropriations bill
(passed the House but not the Senate), provides $75 million for MEPI, of which $9
million is for scholarship programs for students from countries with significant
Muslim populations at not-for-profit institutions of basic and higher education in the
Middle East. H.R. 5522 also recommends $20 million for the promotion of
democracy in countries located outside the Middle East region with significant
Muslim populations, such as Indonesia. The Senate version of H.R. 5522 also
recommends $750,000 for the Center for Middle Eastern-Western Dialogue, an
organization whose mission is to provide a forum for ongoing interaction and
dialogue between citizens of the United States and Muslim-majority countries on key
issues of mutual concern.
Policy Concerns Not Addressed
Radical Islam in Europe. Some critics assert that although poverty-
reduction measures and the promotion of liberal reforms are desperately needed in
many Arab and Muslim-majority countries, they are not a panacea and that many
international terrorists, including some of Al Qaeda’s top planners, were Western-
educated and middle class residents of European countries. Some terrorism experts
suggest that fundamentalist ideologies enjoy the most receptivity among Arab and



Muslim migrant communities in Western countries, which face psychological
dislocation and alienation in a new and unfamiliar environment.35
Islam in Politics. By calling for political reform and liberalization in the
Muslim world, policymakers run the risk of empowering religious opposition parties
that may seek to permanently enshrine Islamic religious law in a country’s political
and social system. Critics of U.S. foreign policy to combat extremism argue that
based on their experience with Iran during its 1979 revolution and the subsequent
influence of Islamist militant groups elsewhere in the region, the United States and
other Western powers are wary of Islamist groups taking power (as Hamas did in
2006) and that Western support for secular autocratic regimes further enhances the
credibility of opposition Islamist groups and some radical organizations. Political
conditions vary across the Middle East and some Islamic groups are more moderate
than others.
Terrorism: U.S. Policy Instruments36
Commission Concerns and Recommendations
The report of the 9/11 Commission underlined the importance for the United
States of using the full range of policy instruments at its disposal to attack terrorists
and their organizations and prevent the continued growth of Islamic terrorism. These
policy instruments include not only intelligence, law enforcement, military force
(treated elsewhere), but also diplomacy, bilateral support and economic assistance
to front- line and failing states, support for democracy and good governance,
international education and exchanges, and public diplomacy to engage the struggle
of ideas and define and defend U.S. ideals and values (see below).
The Commission called on the United States to offer an example of moral
leadership in the world, commit to treating people humanely, abide by the rule of
law, and be generous and caring to its neighbors. It argued that the United States
must stand for a better future in countries whose governments are repressive, even
if they are friendly towards the United States.
Congressional Responses
The Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act of 2004 (P.L. 108-458)
addressed a number of themes in the 9/11 Commission Report. In Sec. 7101,
Congress found that long-term success in the war on terrorism would require the use
of all elements of national power, in addition to military action, intelligence, covert
operations, law enforcement, and homeland defense, also including economic policy,
foreign aid, and public diplomacy. The Act stated that the United States must give


35 For more information, see CRS Report RL33166, Muslims in Europe: Integration in
Selected Countries, by Paul Gallis, Kristin Archick, Francis T. Miko, and Steven Woehrel.
36 Prepared by Francis T. Miko, Specialist in International Relations, Foreign Affairs,
Defense, and Trade Division.

economic and diplomatic instruments as high a priority as military capabilities. This
implied the need for increased funding for foreign affairs programs.
In Sec. 7115, it was the sense of Congress that U.S. strategy to counter
terrorism should include economic policies that encourage development, open
societies, and opportunities for people. The Act further states that U.S. policy should
include lowering of trade barriers for poor countries, as well as promote economic
reform and rule of law, especially in Muslim countries.
More concrete Congressional action related to these recommendations was not
contained in P.L.108-458. The Administration’s and Congress’ response to these
recommendations was reflected to some degree in subsequent foreign relations
authorizations and the FY2006 and FY2007 State Department and Foreign
Operations Appropriations legislation. While the FY2007 appropriations have not
yet been enacted, both the President’s request and the relevant bills in the House and
Senate reflect some of the priorities contained in the recommendations. Funding for
diplomacy and foreign aid have been more closely tied to strategic requirements of
the war on terrorism. Foreign aid to the “front-line states” in the war has been
increased. More generally, economic assistance has been directed to reducing
poverty, creating jobs, and improving education as an antidote to terrorist
recruitment in impoverished areas. Resources have also been increased for
improving America’s image through public diplomacy and international
broadcasting, as well as for cultural and educational exchange programs. In the
FY2007 appropriations the Administration has requested funding to implement its
“transformational diplomacy” and “transformational development” initiatives, aimed
at revamping U.S. diplomacy and foreign aid policy for the 21st Century.
Public Diplomacy, Education and Exchange Programs37
Commission Concerns and Recommendations. Noting that terrorism
is a result of resentment by some Muslims because of American engagement in the
Muslim world, the 9/11 Commission asserted that public diplomacy is a key tool in
the war on terrorism in helping to change attitudes about America. The Commission
recommended that the United States, through the use of public diplomacy, convey
respect for human dignity, assist in providing education for their children, and offer
hope for economic opportunity. The Commission recommended that America more
aggressively promote its values and advertise the aid given by the citizens of the
United States. The Commission specifically recommended increasing funding for
such public diplomacy activities as international broadcasting, exchanges, and
overseas library programs, targeting these activities toward the youth.
Congressional Response. The Intelligence Reform and Terrorism
Prevention Act of 2004 (P.L. 108-458) contained several measures intended to
increase U.S. government public diplomacy activities as recommended by the 9/11
Commission. Sense of Congress provisions affirmed that the U.S. government
should offer an example of values and respect for human dignity and should work


37 Prepared by Susan B. Epstein, Specialist in Foreign Policy and Trade, Foreign Affairs,
Defense, and Trade Division.

with other governments to provide human dignity, economic opportunity, and
tolerance. Furthermore, the United States should promote the ideas of individual
freedom, educational opportunity, political participation and tolerance for opposing
points of view.
Other provisions:
!stated that it is United States policy to promote free media and
journalistic integrity overseas through public diplomacy programs
and required establishing a media network with grants provided to
the National Endowment for Democracy (NED) and authorizes such
sums as may be necessary to establish the media network.
!required the Secretary of State to make public diplomacy an integral
component in U.S. foreign policy and coordinate public diplomacy
activities with all agencies as well as the Broadcasting Board of
Governors.
!urged the Secretary of State to recruit, hire, train and promote
Foreign Service Officers with an emphasis on public diplomacy and
foreign languages of Muslim populations.
!declared that the President and Secretary of State should use the
weight of the United States to promote public diplomacy in
multilateral organizations and shall provide public diplomacy
training for Foreign and Civil Service personnel who represent the
United States in multilateral organizations.
For the Consolidated Appropriations Act of FY2005 (P.L. 108-447), conferees
noted that alarming public opinion polls and media content continue to reveal
profound anti-American sentiments and direct the Department of State to submit
reports outlining the criteria for measuring performance of expanded public
diplomacy efforts. This Act expanded funding for international information
programs, cultural exchanges and international broadcasting, particularly in Muslim
populations.
The 109th Congress made some gains in meeting the public diplomacy
recommendations of the 9/11 Commission largely through the appropriations
process. The Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs
Appropriation, FY2006 (P.L. 109-102) established a new account entitled Democracy
Fund. This account is intended to increase effectiveness and oversight of programs
that promote democracy, governance, human rights, independent media, and the rule
of law globally. Within this new account amounting to $95 million for FY2006 is
additional funding for the National Endowment for Democracy (NED), as well as
other programs and countries.
Within the State Department appropriation for FY2006 (P.L. 109-108) Congress
increased funding for already-established public diplomacy programs, including
educational and cultural exchanges, international broadcasting, and regular
appropriations for the NED. Additional funding for public diplomacy programs,



specifically U.S. broadcasting into Iran, was included in the FY2006 supplemental
(P.L. 109-234).
The 109th Congress also considered, but did not pass, Foreign Relations
Authorization legislation (H.R. 2601/S. 600) which included measures to authorize
grants be extended to the Middle East Broadcasting Networks (MBN), subject to
specified limitations and restrictions, such as the Broadcasting Board of Governors
(BBG) taking full responsibility for the direction taken by the MBN.
Terrorist Financing38
Commission Concerns and Recommendations
The report of the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United
States (the 9-11 Commission report) sought to refocus the policy debate concerning
terrorist financing. The Commission recommended that the Bush Administration
shift its focus from seizing terrorist funds to tracking terrorist financial networks in
order to gain actionable counter-terrorism intelligence.39 The Commission also
emphasized terrorist organizations’ increasing shift to informal methods of money
transfer such as hawala or hundi.40
These recommendation have led to an ongoing discussion over the sources and
methods used to collect financial intelligence. For example, Congress has
investigated efforts by the Department of the Treasury to track international transfers
of funds to and from terrorists by accessing information held by the Society for
Worldwide Interbank Financial Telecommunication (SWIFT).41 SWIFT is a
Brussels-based entity that serves as a major hub for international communications
among banks and other financial institutions.
Given the experience of the five years since 9/11, legislators and executive
branch officials have determined that combating terrorist financing requires effective
coordination of many different federal government activities including intelligence
gathering, financial regulation, law enforcement, and building international


38 Prepared by Martin A. Weiss, Analyst in International Trade and Finance, Foreign Affairs,
Defense and Trade.
39 According to Commission Chairman Thomas Kean, “Right now we have been spending
a lot of energy in the government trying to dry up sources of funding..., obviously if you can
dry up money, you dry it up, but we believe one thing we didn’t do effectively is follow the
money. That’s what we have to do.” Quoted in Laura Sullivan, “U.S. Split on Tracing,
Freezing Terror Funds,” Baltimore Sun, Aug. 2, 2004.
40 See Nikos Passos, “Hawala and Other Informal Value Transfer Systems: How to Regulate
Them?” available at [http://usinfo.state.gov/eap/Archive_Index/
Hawala_and_Other_Informa l_V a lue_T r ansf er_Sys tems _How_to_Regulate_T hem.html ]
41 CRS Report RS22469: Treasury’s Terrorist Finance Program’s Access to Information
Held by the Society for Worldwide Interbank Financial Telecommunication (SWIFT), by
Jennifer K. Elsea and M. Maureen Murphy.

coalitions. Improving the interagency coordination of U.S. counter-terrorist
financing efforts remains one of the largest challenges for the U.S. government.
According to a 2006 Government Accountability Office report, “the U.S. government
lacks an integrated strategy to coordinate the delivery of counter-terrorism financing
training and technical assistance to countries it deems vulnerable to terrorist
financing.”42 The report recommends, among other things, that the Secretaries of
State and the Treasury implement an integrated strategic plan and a Memorandum of
Agreement for the delivery of training and technical assistance.
In an effort to focus U.S. counter-terrorist financing efforts, in March 2004, the
Department of the Treasury created the Office of Terrorism and Financial
Intelligence (TFI). TFI was designed to integrate several offices within Treasury:
the Office of Terrorist Financing and Financial Crime (TF/FC), the Office of Foreign
Assets Control (OFAC), the Financial Crimes Enforcement Network (FinCEN), the
Office of Intelligence and Analysis (OIA), and the Treasury Executive Office for
Asset Forfeiture (TEOAF). In addition to an Under Secretary, four new senior level
positions were created: Assistant and Deputy Assistant Secretaries for Terrorist
Financing and Assistant and Deputy Assistant Secretaries for Intelligence and
Analysis.
Congressional Responses
Several sections of the Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act of
2004 (PL 108-458) address terrorist financing. The Act made technical corrections
to the International Money Laundering Abatement and Anti-Terrorist Financing Act,
Title III of the USA PATRIOT Act (PL 107-56) (Sec. 6202); authorized the Treasury
to produce currency, postage stamps, and other security documents for foreign
governments subject to certain conditions (Sec. 6301); and reauthorized funds for the
biannual money laundering and financial crimes strategy report, the most recent of
which was released in 2003 (Sec. 6102).43 As of November 2006, the expected 2005
national money laundering and financial crimes strategy report has not been released.
The Act authorized funding to improve FinCEN (Sec. 6101). The Act
authorized $19 million for improvements related to FinCEN’s telecommunications
and analytic capacity and authorized $16.5 million for the development of FinCEN’s
Bank Secrecy Act (BSA) Direct program. In June 2004, Treasury established the
BSA Direct Retrieval and Sharing program (BSA R&S). This program was designed
to make it easier for law enforcement to access and analyze BSA data and to improve
overall data management. Treasury had trouble implementing the BSA R&S
program due to problems with its main contractor, Electronic Data Systems. On July


42 Terrorist Financing: Better Strategic Planning Needed to Coordinate U.S. Efforts to
Deliver Counter-Terrorism Financing Training and Technical Assistance Abroad, United
States Government Accountability Office, October 2005, GAO 06-19.
43 “2003 National Money Laundering Strategy Report,” Department of the Treasury,
available at [http://www.ustreas.gov/offices/enforcement/publications/ml2003.pdf].

13, 2006, FinCEN halted the program.44 Robert Werner, FinCEN Director, testified
on September 12, 2006 that FinCEN is initiating a “re-planning effort” for the
retrieval and sharing component of BSA Direct. No expected completion date has
been announced.45
The Act required the Secretary of the Treasury to prescribe regulations
requiring selected financial institutions to report to FinCEN certain cross-border
electronic transmittals of funds (wire-transfers) (Sec. 6302). New regulations must
be promulgated by December 2007. Treasury is currently determining the feasibility
and impact of these additional reporting requirements.46
The Act required the President to submit to Congress a report evaluating and
making recommendations on: (1) the effectiveness of efforts and methods to track
terrorist financing; (2) ways to improve governmental cooperation; (3) ways to
improve the performance of financial institutions; (4) the adequacy of agency
coordination and ways to improve that coordination; and (5) recommendations for
changes in law and additional resources required to improve this effort (Section
6303). This report was due in September 2005 and has not yet been submitted to
Congress.47
The Act requires the Secretary of the Treasury to work with the International
Monetary Fund (IMF) to combat terrorist financing and to testify before Congress on
the status of implementation of international anti-money laundering and
counter-terrorist financing standards by the IMF and other multilateral agencies (Sec.
7703). The IMF is actively involved in establishing anti-money laundering standards
and continues to review the anti-money laundering frameworks of IMF member
countries. 48
The Secretary of the Treasury is also required to continue to convene the
interagency United States Government Financial Action Task Force (FATF) working
group to review and develop U.S. and international anti-money laundering standards
(Sec. 7704).49 The U.S. government is actively involved in FATF operations and has


44 FinCEN Halts BSA Direct Retrieval and Sharing Project, Treasury Press Release, July

13, 2006, available at [http://www.fincen.gov/bsa_direct_nr.html].


45 Statement of Robert W. Werner, Director, Financial Crimes Enforcement Network United
States Department Of The Treasury before The Senate Banking Committee, September 12,

2006, available at [http://www.ustreas.gov/press/releases/hp101.htm].


46 FinCEN seeks industry input on feasibility of collection of cross-border wire transfer
data, Treasury Press Release, March 10, 2006, available at [http://www.fincen.gov
/fincennewsrelease03102006.html ].
47 Phone discussion with Treasury Legislative Affairs, November 29, 2006.
48 “IMF Executive Board Reviews the Quality and Consistency of Assessment Reports for
Anti-Money Laundering and Combating the Financing of Terrorism and the Effectiveness
of Coordination,” International Monetary Fund Public Information Notice (PIN) No. 06/72.
49 The Financial Action Task Force is an inter-governmental body whose purpose is the
development and promotion of national and international policies to combat money
(continued...)

promoted the adoption of international anti-terrorist financing best practices through
engagement with and support of a number of FATF-style regional bodies, such as the
Middle East and North Africa (MENA) FATF. In March 2006, the Treasury
Department established a U.S.-MENA Private Sector Dialogue. A similar dialogue
with the Latin American financial community is underway and Treasury is planning
to hold an anti-money laundering conference in Latin America in early 2007.50
U.S. Military Forces and the War on Terrorism51
Commission Concerns and Recommendations
Recommendation 32 of the 9/11 Commission Report states that “the lead
responsibility for directing and executing paramilitary operations, whether
clandestine or covert, should shift to the Defense Department. There it should be
consolidated with the capabilities for training, direction, and execution of such
operations already being developed in the Special Operations Command.” (Page

415).


The 9-11 Commission’s apparent concern appeared to be both performance and
cost-based. The report states that the CIA did not sufficiently invest in developing
a robust capability to conduct paramilitary operations with U.S. personnel prior to
9/11, and instead relied on improperly trained proxies (foreign personnel under
contract) resulting in an unsatisfactory outcome. The report also states that the
United States does not have the money or people to build “two separate capabilities
for carrying out secret military operations,” and suggests that we should “concentrate
responsibility and necessary legal authorities in one entity.”
Congressional Responses
Relevant Provisions Enacted by Congress. Section 1013 of P.L. 108-
458 requires the National Intelligence Director, in consultation with the Secretary of
Defense and the Director of the Central Intelligence Agency to develop joint
procedures to improve the coordination and deconfliction in the planning, execution,
and sustainment of operations involving DOD and the CIA. It also requires
information exchange between the Secretary of Defense and Director CIA, so that
senior operational officials have knowledge of the existence of all ongoing


49 (...continued)
laundering and terrorist financing. For more information on the Financial Action Task
Force, see Financial Action Task Force Annual Report 2005-2006,available at
[http://www.fatf-gafi.org/dataoecd/38/56/37041969.pdf] and CRS Report RS21904: The
Financial Action Task Force: An Overview, by James K. Jackson.
50 Testimony of Daniel Glaser, Deputy Assistant Secretary for Terrorist Financing and
Financial Crimes before the Senate Committee on Banking, Housing, and Urban Affairs,
September 12, 2006, available at [http://banking.senate.gov/_files/glaser.pdf].
51 Prepared by Andrew Feickert, Specialist in National Defense, Foreign Affairs, Defense,
and Trade Division.

operations. When appropriate, it requires mutual agreement on tactical and strategic
objectives.
Policy Concerns Not Addressed. P.L. 108-458 did not address the
recommended shift of responsibility for paramilitary operations from the CIA to
DOD. Some speculated that this particular issue was too complex and contentious to
be included in intelligence reform legislation and that it required further study and
analysis. Others suggested that there was no need to shift responsibilities, only to
improve coordination and planning between the CIA and DOD which Section 1013
addresses.
Options Considered by the 109th Congress. The 109th Congress did not
address this issue legislatively. On November 23, 2004, President Bush issued a
letter requiring the Secretary of Defense and the Director of Central Intelligence to
review matters relating to Recommendation 32 and submit their advice to him by
February 23, 2005. This review directed the examination of all aspects including
legal, funding, operational, and supporting infrastructure. A preliminary Pentagon
study reportedly concluded that DOD should not take over the paramilitary
responsibility from the CIA.52 In unclassified testimony to the Senate Select
Committee on Intelligence in February 2005, the Director of the CIA testified that the
CIA and DOD disagreed with the 9-11 Committee’s recommendation.53 In June of
2005 it was reported that the Secretary of Defense and the Director of the Central
Intelligence Agency responded to the President, stating that “neither the CIA nor
DOD endorses the commission’s recommendation on shifting the paramilitary
mission or operations.”54 The Administration apparently accepted DOD’s and the
CIA’s recommendation and reportedly rejected the 9-11 Commission’s
recommendation to shift the responsibility for paramilitary operations to DOD.55
Weapons of Mass Destruction: Proliferation
Security and Threat Reduction56
Commission Concerns and Recommendations
In view of intelligence assessments that al-Qaeda has been seeking to acquire
weapons of mass destruction for several years, the 9/11 Commission concluded that


52 Ann Scott Tyson, “Study Urges CIA Not to Cede Paramilitary Functions to Pentagon,”
Washington Post, Feb. 5, 2005, p. 8.
53 Transcripts, Senate Select Committee on Intelligence, Subject: National Security Threats
to the United States, Federal New Service, February 16, 2005, p. 29.
54 John J. Lumpkin, “Rumsfeld, Goss Oppose DOD Assumption of CIA Paramilitary Covert
Operations,” Army Times, June 29, 2005.
55 Douglas Jehl, “White House is Said to Reject Panel’s Call for a Greater Pentagon Role
in Covert Operations,” New York Times, June 28, 2005.
56 Prepared by Steve Bowman and Sharon Squassoni, Specialists in National Defense,
Foreign Affairs, Defense, and Trade Division.

WMD nonproliferation efforts should be expanded and provided additional
resources. Specifically, the Commission recommended: (1) the development of an
international legal regime “with universal jurisdiction” to interdict, capture, and
prosecute those trafficking in WMD and related technology; (2) the expansion of the
Proliferation Security Initiative (PSI) to include Russia, China, and all NATO
countries; (3) the expansion of the Cooperative Threat Reduction (CTR) program and
the provision of additional financial resources.
Congressional Responses
There has been no congressional initiative regarding the establishment of an
international WMD anti-smuggling regime, aside from the continued full funding of
the Proliferation Security Initiative (PSI).57 The Administration has secured the
passage of United Nations Resolution 1540 which requires member states to
criminalize proliferation, establish export controls over WMD-related technology,
and secure WMD-related materiel. The resolution does not provide for enforcement,
nor address the establishment of any international anti-smuggling regime.
Members of the 109th Congress introduced several bills and resolutions that
called for strengthening and expanding the PSI: S.Con.Res. 36, H.Con..Res. 133,
S.Con.Res. 40, H.R. 422, H.R. 665, H.R. 5017/S. 3456, and S. 2566. None,
however, was brought to the floor of either chamber. Geographic expansion remains
a key issue -- particularly how to engage China and India, as well as states in
important regions like the Arabian Peninsula. The 110th Congress may consider how
intelligence resources are handled. Is intelligence sufficient and are there intelligence-
sharing requirements with non-NATO allies? Also, how is PSI coordinated with
other federal interdiction-related programs (e.g., export control assistance)? One
potential complication for congressional oversight of PSI is the absence of a way to
measure PSI's success, relative to past efforts.
The Cooperative Threat Reduction (CTR) program (also known as Nunn-
Lugar), which is administered by DOD’s Threat Reduction Agency, continues to
receive congressional funding support. In the FY2004 National Defense
Authorization Act (P.L. 108-176, Sec. 1308), Congress authorized the Bush
Administration to spend $50 million of unobligated funds from the Cooperative
Threat Reduction Program in states outside the former Soviet Union. As of
September 2006, the Administration had spent such funds only in Albania ($38.5
million) for the purpose of eliminating chemical weapons stockpiles.
The 109th Congress considered the following legislation that could restrict the
provision of CTR assistance to some countries. The State Department’s annual
foreign operations appropriations bill, the Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and
Related Programs Appropriations Act, includes provisions that prohibit assistance
to certain countries. Section 507 of the FY2006 foreign operations appropriations bill


57 The PSI is an agreement among some nations to cooperate in the detection and
interdiction of illicit WMD-related materiel shipments. Currently, sixteen nations are PSI
participants. See also CRS Report RS21881, Proliferation Security Initiative (PSI), by
Sharon Squassoni.

(P.L.109-102) states that no funds will be “obligated or expended to finance directly
any assistance or reparations to Cuba, Libya, North Korea, Iran, or Syria.” The
FY2007 bill passed in the House (H.R. 5522) and awaiting passage in the Senate
includes the same provision. The Iran Freedom Support Act, introduced in both the
House and the Senate (H.R. 282/S. 333), could make supplying CTR assistance to
Iran more difficult. The Iran-Libya Sanction Act (P.L. 104- 172) has been extended
through September 2011, pursuant to the Iran Freedom Support Act (P.L. 109-293).
Sudan has been severely limited from receiving U.S. assistance since 1997 by a
combination of executive order and U.S. law. These include Executive Order 13067,
Section 520 of the Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs
Appropriations Act, 2006 (P.L. 109-102), the Comprehensive Peace in Sudan Act of
2004 (P.L. 108-497) and The Sudan Peace Act (P.L. 107-245). The 109th also
considered legislation that could affect third party states, or any state that could
potentially receive CTR assistance, to the extent such states are considered for these
initiatives. For example, Section 542 of the FY2006 foreign operations bill (P.L.109-
102) prohibited assistance to countries that provide lethal military equipment to State
Sponsors of Terrorism. Other examples include P.L. 109-267 which extended the
Iran-Libya Sanctions Act, the Iran Nonproliferation Amendments Act (P.L. 109-112),
which added Syria to that Act, and the North Korea Nonproliferation Act of 2006 (S.

3728), which added North Korea to the Iran — Syria Nonproliferation Act.58


Border Security and Immigration59
Terrorist Travel
Commission Concerns and Recommendations. The 9/11 Commission
issued several recommendations that directly pertain to immigration law and policy.
These recommendations focused primarily on targeting terrorist travel through an
intelligence and security strategy based on reliable identification systems and
effective, integrated information-sharing, including the expansion and consolidation
of the border-screening systems. More specifically, the 9/11 Commission concluded
that targeting travel is at least as powerful a weapon against terrorists as targeting
their money, and recommended that the United States combine intelligence,
operations, and law enforcement in a strategy to intercept terrorists, find terrorist
travel facilitators, and constrain terrorist mobility.
Congressional Response.60 The Intelligence Reform and Terrorism
Prevention Act (ITRPA) of 2004 (P.L. 108-458) included several provisions aimed
at targeting terrorist travel. The Act calls for the accelerated deployment of the


58 See also, CRS Report RL32359, Globalizing Cooperative Threat Reduction: A Survey of
Options, by Sharon Squassoni.
59 Prepared by Ruth Ellen Wasem, Specialist in Immigration Policy, Domestic Social Policy
Division.
60 For further analysis, see CRS Report RL32616, 9/11 Commission: Current Legislative
Proposals for U.S. Immigration Law and Policy, by Michael John Garcia and Ruth Ellen
Wasem.

biometric entry and exit system to process or contain certain data on aliens and their
physical characteristics (see discussion below).61 It required an in-person consular
interview of most applicants for nonimmigrant visas between the ages of 14 and 79,
and also required an alien applying for a nonimmigrant visa to completely and
accurately respond to any request for information contained in his or her
application.62 The Act also expanded the pre-inspection program that places U.S.
immigration inspectors at foreign airports, increasing the number of foreign airports
where travelers would be pre-inspected before departure to the United States.
Moreover, it required individuals entering the United States (including U.S. citizens
and visitors from Canada and other Western Hemisphere countries) to bear a passport
or other documents sufficient to denote citizenship and identity.
The Act required improvements in technology and training to assist consular and
immigration officers in detecting and combating terrorist travel. It (1) established the
Human Smuggling and Trafficking Center, which included an interagency program
devoted to countering terrorist travel; (2) required the Secretary of Homeland
Security, in consultation with the Director of the National Counter Terrorism Center,
to establish a program to oversee DHS’s responsibilities with respect to terrorist
travel; and (3) established a Visa and Passport Security Program within the Bureau
of Diplomatic Security at the Department of State.
In the 109th Congress, the REAL ID Act of 2005 (P.L. 109-13, Division B),
among other things, required DHS to: conduct a study on U.S. border security
vulnerabilities; establish a pilot program to test ground surveillance technologies on
the northern and southern borders to enhance U.S. border security; and implement
a plan to improve communications systems and information-sharing between federal,
state, local, and tribal agencies on matters relating to border security. DHS was also
required to submit reports to Congress regarding its implementation of these
requirements.63 The Secure Fence Act (P.L. 109-367) required DHS to deploy
double-layer fencing to 850 miles of the U.S. international border with Mexico.64
Terrorist Screening and Watch Lists65
Commission Concerns and Recommendations. The 9/11 Commission
concluded that the U.S. intelligence and law enforcement community missed several


61 For background and analysis, see CRS Report RL32234, U.S. Visitor and Immigrant
Status Indicator Technology Program (US-VISIT), by Lisa Seghetti and Stephen Vina.
62 For background and analysis, see CRS Report RL31512, Visa Issuances: Policy, Issues,
and Legislation, by Ruth Ellen Wasem.
63 For further discussion, see CRS Report RL33125, Immigration Legislation and Issues in
the 109th Congress, coordinated by Andorra Bruno. For a legal analysis of the REAL ID
Act, see CRS Report RL32754, Immigration: Analysis of the Major Provisions of the REAL
ID Act of 2005, by Michael Garcia, Margaret Mikyung Lee, and Todd Tatelman.
64 For more information on border fencing, see CRS Report RL33659, Border Security:
Barriers Along the U.S. International Border, by Blas Nuñez-Neto and Stephen R. Viña.
65 Prepared by William J. Krouse, Specialist in Domestic Security, Domestic Social Policy
Division.

vital opportunities to watch-list and screen several conspirators involved in the 9/11
terrorist attacks.66 In addition, the Commission recommended that U.S. border
security systems be integrated with other systems to expand the network of screening
points to include the nation’s transportation system and access to vital facilities.67
Despite problems with high-profile misidentifications,68 the Commission also
recommended that the controversial “No-Fly” and “Automatic Selectee” lists
maintained by the DHS’s Transportation Security Administration be improved
without delay.69
Congressional Response. In the Intelligence Reform and Terrorism
Prevention Act of 2004 (P.L. 108-458), Congress included several watch list related
airline passenger prescreening provisions that require that airline passengers, among
others, be prescreened against the consolidated terrorist watch list database. Another
provision requires the Administration to report to Congress on (1) the criteria used
to place persons on terrorism-related watch lists, and (2) the privacy and civil liberty
implications of the further use of the “No Fly” and “Automatic Selectee” lists. These
and other aviation security provisions are described below under “Transportation
S ecuri t y.”
Related Administrative Response. Under Homeland Security Presidential
Directive 6 (HSPD-6),70 the Bush Administration elevated and expanded terrorist
identification and watch-list functions by establishing a consolidated terrorist watch
list database.71 Undergirding these screening processes is a consolidated Terrorist
Screening Database (TSDB), which under HSPD-6 has been established and
maintained by the Terrorist Screening Center (TSC) — a multi-agency effort


66 National Commission on Terrorist Attacks upon the United States, “Three 9/11 Hijackers:
Identification, Watchlisting, and Tracking,” Staff Statement no. 2, (Washington, 2004), p.

1.


67 National Commission on Terrorist Attacks upon the United States, The 9/11 Commission
Report, p. 387.
68 Sara Kehaulani Goo, “Committee Chairman Runs Into Watch-List Problem: Name
Similarity Led to Questioning at Anchorage and Seattle Airports, Alaska Congressman
Says,” Washington Post, Sept. 30, 2004, p. A17, and “Hundreds Report Watch-List Trials:
Some Ended Hassles at Airports by Making Slight Change to Name,” Washington Post,
Aug. 21, 2004, p. A08.
69 According to the FBI, the “No Fly” and “Automatic Selectee” lists have been consolidated
in the TSDB and the lookout records on those lists are being expanded and improved. U.S.
Department of Justice, Federal Bureau of Investigation, Criminal Justice Information
Services (CJIS) Division, “Terrorist Screening Center Consolidates Data for Law
Enforcement Needs,” The CJIS LINK, vol. 7, No. 4, October 2004, pp. 1-2.
70 The TSC was established under HSPD-6. See, The White House, Homeland Security
Presidential Directive/HSPD-6, Subject: Integration and Use of Screening Information
(Washington, Sept. 16, 2003). Available at [http://www.whitehouse.gov/
news/releases/ 2003/09/20030916-5.html ].
71 For further information, see CRS Report RL32366, Terrorist Identification, Screening,
and Tracking Under Homeland Presidential Directive 6, by William J. Krouse.

administered by the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI). Among other things, the
TSC provides support to:
!the Department of State’s Bureau of Consular Affairs by issuing
terrorism-related security advisory opinions for visa issuance
purposes;
!the Department of Homeland Security’s (DHS’s) Customs and
Border Protection in evaluating potential matches between terrorist
lookout records and persons entering the United States at
international ports of entry; and
!nearly 750,000 state and local law enforcement officers to whom
limited TSDB lookout records have been made available through the
National Crime Information Center.
In April 2006, the DHS Privacy Office issued a report assessing the impact of
the “No Fly” and “Automatic Selectee” lists on privacy and civil liberties.72 The
report cited concerns about the quality of the information of those lists, as well as the
underlying intelligence.73 The report also noted allegations about profiling on the
basis of race, religion, or national origin, but reported that it could not substantiate
those allegations.74
In regard to the criteria used to place individuals on terrorist watch lists, it is
unknown whether the Administration reported to Congress on this matter.
Nevertheless, the Privacy Office report stressed that those criteria could not be made
public without: (1) comprising intelligence and security, or (2) allowing persons
wishing to avoid detection to subvert those lists.75
In addition, in late September 2006, the Government Accountability Office
(GAO) released a report on efforts to reduce the adverse effects of terrorist watch list
screening, outlining measures that DHS and the TSC had taken to reduce and
alleviate misidentifications.76 It also noted that while the total number of
misidentifications is unknown, their frequency, which is estimated to be in the tens-
of-thousands, remains a serious concern.77


72 U.S. Department of Homeland Security, DHS Privacy Office Report on Assessing the
Impact of the Automatic Selectee and No Fly Lists on Privacy and Civil Liberties as
Required Under Section 4012(b) of the Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act
of 2004, April 27, 2006, 22 pp.
73 Ibid., p. 8.
74 Ibid., p. 9.
75 Ibid.
76 U.S. Government Accountability Office, Terrorism Watch List Screening: Efforts to Help
Reduce Adverse Effects on the Public, GAO-06-1031, Sept. 2006, p. 55.
77 Ibid., p. 12.

Biometric Screening System and Data Systems Integration78
Commission Concerns and Recommendations. The 9/11 Commission
called for the expeditious implementation of “a biometric entry-exit screening
system, including a single system for speeding qualified travelers.” With respects to
biometrics, the 9/11 Commission noted the following: “Biometrics have been
introduced into an antiquated computer environment” and that “replacement of these
systems and improved biometric systems will be required.” The 9/11 Commission
also recommended the integration of the various border screening systems with the
US-VISIT system, including frequent traveler programs such as NEXUS and the
Secure Electronic Network for Travelers’ Rapid Inspections (SENTRI).79
Congressional Responses.80 In an effort to implement the 9/11
Commission recommendations, Congress passed the Intelligence Reform and
Terrorism Prevention Act of 2004 (P.L.108-458). Previously, Congress passed
legislation that mandated DHS to implement entry and exit controls and integrate
immigration-related databases and data systems.
Congress first mandated that the former Immigration and Naturalization Service
(INS) implement an automated entry and exit data system that would track the arrival
and departure of every alien in §110 of the Illegal Immigration Reform and81
Immigrant Responsibility Act of 1996 (IIRIRA; P.L. 104-208). Several provisions
in the Enhanced Border Security and Visa Entry Reform Act (Border Security Act;
P.L. 107-173) and the Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act of 2004,
however, required the immediate implementation of an automated entry and exit data
system and called for enhancements in its development, including a requirement that
biometric identifiers be used in all visas and other travel documents and that the entry
and exit data system be interoperable with other law enforcement and national
security databases. Congress, however, first required the entry and exit data system
be interoperable with other law enforcement systems in the Uniting and
Strengthening America by Providing Appropriate Tools Required to Intercept and
Obstruct Terrorism Act (PATRIOT Act; P.L. 107-56). The PATRIOT Act was also
the first time Congress required the development and certification of a technology
standard that has the capacity to verify the identity of persons applying for a visa or
seeking to enter the United States.


78 Prepared by Blas Nuñez-Neto, Analyst in Domestic Security, Domestic Social Policy
Division.
79 Ibid, pp. 388-389.
80 For further information on the U.S. VISIT program and immigration-related border
security measures passed by Congress, see CRS Report RL32234, U.S. Visitor and
Immigrant Status Indicator Technology (U.S.-VISIT) Program, by Lisa M. Seghetti and
Stephen R. Vina; and CRS Report RL31727, Border Security: Immigration Issues in theth

108 Congress, by Lisa M. Seghetti.


81 Subsequent legislation amended §110 of IIRIRA by either changing the scope of
categories of aliens who would be subjected to entry and exit controls, or delayed
implementation of the system. See the INS Data Management Improvement Act (DMIA;
P.L. 106-215); the Visa Waiver Permanent Program Act (VWPPA; P.L. 106-396).

The Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act of 2004 called for the
Secretary of DHS (Secretary) to develop a plan to accelerate the full implementation
of an automated biometric entry and exit data system and to submit a report to
Congress on the plan by July 17, 2005. The Act required the entry and exit data
system to collect “biometric exit data for all categories of individuals who are
required to provide biometric entry data.”
The Act also required the integration of all databases and data systems that
process or contain information on aliens by December 2006. The Act required the
integrated data system to be an interoperable component of the entry and exit data
system. The Act further required the Secretary to fully implement the interoperable
electronic data system as specified in the Border Security Act. In addition to the
integration of the entry and exit data system with other databases and data systems,
the Act required the Secretary to develop and implement a plan to expedite the
processing of registered travelers through a single registered traveler program that
can be integrated into the broader automated biometric entry and exit data system.
Standards for Identification Documents82
Commission Concerns and Recommendations. The 9/11 Commission
recommended that standards should be set “for the issuance of birth certificates and
sources of identification, such as drivers licenses.” The 9/11 Commission noted that
fraudulent documents are “...no longer just a problem of theft,” and that ports of entry
are “the last opportunity to ensure that people are who they are...” Additionally, the
9/11 Commission recommended the elimination of the “Western Hemisphere
Exception,” whereby U.S. citizens returning from countries in the Western
Hemisphere, and some citizens from designated Western Hemisphere nations, are not
required to show a passport when entering the United States (but they are required
to demonstrate citizenship). In doing so, the 9/11 Commission advocated for
ensuring that all individuals presenting themselves for entry into the United States
present biometric passports or other identification allowing their identities to be
securely verified.
Congressional Response. In the 108th Congress, the Intelligence Reform
and Terrorism Prevention Act of 2004 (P.L.108-458) required the establishment of
new standards aimed at ensuring the integrity for federal use of birth certificates,
state-issued driver’s licenses and identification cards, and social security cards. States
may receive grants to assist them in implementing the proposed birth certificate and
driver’s license standards.83 In the 109th Congress, the REAL ID Act of 2005 (P.L.
109-13, Division B) addressed this issue more directly, and while the Act does not
directly impose federal standards with respect to states’ issuance of driver’s licenses
and personal identification cards, states nevertheless appear to need to adopt such


82 Prepared by Ruth Ellen Wasem, Specialist in Immigration Policy, and Blas Nuñez-Neto,
Analyst in Domestic Security, Domestic Social Policy Division.
83 For further discussion, see CRS Report RL32722, Intelligence Reform and Terrorism
Prevention Act of 2004: National Standards for Driver’s Licenses, Social Security Cards,
and Birth Certificates, by Todd Tatelman.

standards and modify any conflicting laws or regulations in order for such documents
to be recognized by federal agencies for official purposes.84
The Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act of 2004 also addressed
the “Western Hemisphere Exception” by requiring individuals entering the United
States (including U.S. citizens and visitors from Canada and other Western
Hemisphere countries) to bear a passport or other documents sufficient to denote
citizenship and identity as of January 1, 2008. In the 109th Congress, the fiscal year
(FY) 2007 DHS Appropriations Act (P.L. 109-295) extended this deadline to the
earlier of two dates: June 1, 2009; or no later than three months after the Secretary
of Homeland Security and the Secretary of State certify that a series of
implementation requirements have been met.85
Other Immigration Concerns86
Commission Concerns. Reforming the enforcement of immigration law is
an underlying theme of the recommendations made by the 9/11 Commission. The
9/11 Commission concluded that the key officials responsible for determining alien
admissions (consular officers abroad and immigration inspectors in the United States)
were not considered full partners in counterterrorism efforts prior to September 11,

2001, and as a result, opportunities to intercept the September 11 terrorists were87


missed.
They further recommended that the U.S. border security system be integrated
into a larger network of screening points that includes our transportation system and
access to vital facilities, such as nuclear reactors. In addition, they maintained that the
Department of Homeland Security, with proper support from Congress, should
complete a biometric entry-exit screening system, including a single system for
speeding qualified travelers, as quickly as possible. They also expressed the view
that the U.S. government cannot meet its own obligations to the American people to
prevent the entry of terrorists without a major effort to collaborate with other88
governments.
Congressional Response. The Intelligence Reform and Terrorism
Prevention Act of 2004 (P.L. 108-458) included many immigration-related provisions


84 For a legal analysis of the REAL ID Act, see CRS Report RL32754, Immigration:
Analysis of the Major Provisions of the REAL ID Act of 2005, by Michael Garcia, Margaret
Mikyung Lee, and Todd Tatelman.
85 For further discussion, see CRS Report RL33125, Immigration Legislation and Issues in
the 109th Congress, coordinated by Andorra Bruno.
86 Prepared by Ruth Ellen Wasem, Specialist in Immigration Policy, Domestic Social Policy
Division.
87 U.S. National Commission on Terrorist Attacks upon the United States, The 9/11
Commission Report, Executive Summary, p. 14, July 2004 (hereafter The 9/11 Commission
Report).
88 For a discussion of these recommendations, see The 9/11 Commission Report, Chapter

12.4, pp. 383-389, July 2004.



aimed at addressing broad immigration enforcement concerns raised by the 9/11
Commission. The major features of these immigration-related provisions are
summarized below.89
Grounds for Alien Exclusion, Removal, and Relief from Removal.
The Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act made any alien deportable
who has received military training from or on behalf of an organization that, at the
time of training, was a designated terrorist organization. It also made the revocation
of a nonimmigrant visa by the State Department grounds for removal. The visa
revocation, however, is reviewable in a removal proceeding in cases where visa
revocation provides the sole ground for removal. The Act made inadmissible and
deportable any alien who (1) has ordered, incited, assisted, or participated in conduct
that would be considered genocide under U.S. law; (2) committed or participated in
an act of torture or an extrajudicial killing; or (3) while serving as a foreign official,
was responsible for or directly carried out, at any time, particularly severe violations
of religious freedom. The Act also required the Government Accountability Office
to conduct a study evaluating the degree that weaknesses in the current U.S. asylum
system have been or could be exploited by aliens involved in terrorist-related activity.
Allocation of Additional Resources to Improve Enforcement. The
Act authorized the Secretary of State to increase the number of consular officers by
150 per year from FY2006 through FY2009 above the number of such positions for
which funds were allotted for the preceding fiscal year. It also increased the numbers
of border patrol agents by not less than 2,000, in each year FY2006 through FY2010,
and required a number of agents equaling at least 20% of each year’s increase in
agents to be assigned to the northern border. The Act also increased the number of
ICE investigators by not less than 800 in each year FY2006 through FY2010, and
required an increase in the number of beds available for immigration detention and
removal operations by not less than 8,000 over the same period. Further, the Act
established a pilot program to test advanced technologies to improve border security
between ports of entry along the northern border of the United States. It also required
the Secretary of Homeland Security to submit to the President and Congress a plan
for the systematic surveillance of the southwest border of the United States by
remotely piloted aircraft, and to implement such plan as a pilot program.
In the 109th Congress, the REAL ID Act required DHS to develop a pilot
program to increase the use of ground-surveillance technologies, including video
cameras, sensors, and motion-detection technology, to monitor the northern and
southwestern borders. The Secure Fence Act (P.L. 109-367) required DHS to deploy
double-layer fencing to 850 miles of the U.S. international border with Mexico.90
Penalties for Immigration-Related Fraud and Alien Smuggling. The
Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act increased criminal penalties for


89 For further analysis, see CRS Report RL32616, 9/11 Commission: Current Legislative
Proposals for U.S. Immigration Law and Policy, by Michael John Garcia and Ruth Ellen
Wasem.
90 For more information on border fencing, see CRS Report RL33659, Border Security:
Barriers Along the U.S. International Border, by Blas Nuñez-Neto and Stephen R. Viña.

alien smuggling in certain circumstances and required the Secretary of Homeland
Security to develop an outreach program in the United States and overseas to educate
the public about the penalties for illegally bringing in and harboring aliens.
Transportation Security
Aviation Security91
Commission Concerns and Recommendations.92 The 9/11
Commission expressed concerns over air cargo security, the security of general
aviation aircraft, screening of airline passengers and baggage, and access controls at
airports. The 9/11 Commission made several specific recommendations to address
these concerns.
The 9/11 Commission recommended that improved passenger prescreening not
be further delayed by the long-running argument about a successor to the existing
computer assisted passenger prescreening (CAPPS) program run by the airlines.93
The 9/11 Commission recommended that the Transportation Security Administration
(TSA) take over the function of prescreening passenger names using the larger set of
watchlists maintained by the federal government and that the airlines should be
compelled to provide the data needed to test and implement this new prescreening
system.
The 9/11 Commission also recommended that the TSA and the Congress give
priority attention to improving checkpoint screening for detecting explosives on
passengers. It recommended that the TSA also conduct a human factors study to
examine screener performance, and establish objectives for screeners and screening
checkpoints.
The Commission expressed continued concerns over the screening of checked
baggage and cargo. It indicated that the TSA should expedite the installation of
advanced in-line baggage screening systems that are integrated with airport baggage
processing systems. The Commission noted that, because the aviation industry will
derive substantial benefits from this deployment, it should pay a fair share of the
associated costs, although the commission did not provide specifics regarding
recommended allocation of contributions to pay for in-line explosive detection
systems integration.


91 Prepared by Bart Elias, Specialist in Aviation Safety, Security, and Technology,
Resources, Science, and Industry Division.
92 For more information see CRS Report RL32541, Aviation Security-Related Findings and
Recommendations of the 9/11 Commission, by Bart Elias.
93 In addition to CAPPS, current prescreening procedures involve checking passenger name
records against “automatic-selectee” and “no-fly” lists provided to the airlines by the
Transportation Security Administration (TSA).

The Commission recommended that the TSA intensify efforts to identify, track,
and screen potentially dangerous cargo in aviation as well as in maritime operations.
Additionally, the Commission specifically recommended the deployment of at least
one hardened cargo container on every passenger aircraft that also hauls cargo to
carry any suspicious shipments.
In addition to these recommendations directly addressing aviation security, the
9/11 Commission also urged establishing risk-based priorities for protecting
transportation assets in all modes. It recommended that the TSA select the most
practical and cost effective approaches for defending transportation assets and
formalize a plan for implementing, budgeting, and funding this effort. The 9/11
Commission noted that the plan should assign roles to federal, state, and local
authorities, as well as to private stakeholders.
Congressional Response. The 108th Congress passed two major pieces of
legislation containing numerous provisions pertaining to aviation security: Vision
100 – Century of Aviation Reauthorization Act (P.L. 108-176) and the Intelligence
Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act of 2004 (P.L. 108-458).
Vision 100 – Century of Aviation Reauthorization Act. Before the 9/11
Commission had completed its report, several aviation security-related provisions
were included in Vision 100 – Century of Aviation Reauthorization Act (P.L. 108-

176) which was enacted on December 12, 2003. Vision 100:


!established a redress process for pilots, mechanics or other licensed
aviation professionals whose certification is denied, suspended, or
revoked on the grounds that they pose a risk to aviation security.
Vision 100 also requires the Federal Aviation Administration to
provide a justification to Congress when establishing an Air Defense
Identification Zone (ADIZ) around cities where pilots are required
to use special communications and operating procedures to enable
air traffic controllers to identify potential security threats.
!modified existing requirements for security training of airline flight
and cabin crew members. Under these provisions, the airlines are
responsible for providing mandatory basic training in security for
crews, while the TSA was to develop and provide a voluntary
advanced self-defense training program for crew members.
!required the Department of Homeland Security to study and report
to Congress on the effectiveness of the aviation security system,
including the air marshal program, hardening of cockpit doors, and
security screening of passengers, checked baggage, and cargo. The
report was to include recommendations, including legislative
recommendations, for improving the effectiveness of aviation
security.
!created the Aviation Security Capital Fund. The Act authorizes up
to $500 million per year through FY2007 to be appropriated to this
fund and requires that the first $250 million in aviation security fee



collections be deposited in this fund each year through FY2007. The
Act also provided the Under Secretary for Border and Transportation
Security with the authority to issue grants to airports for projects to
integrate baggage explosive detection systems with baggage
conveyer systems; reconfigure terminal baggage areas as needed to
install explosive detection systems; deploy explosive detection
systems behind the ticket counter, in baggage sorting areas, or in line
with baggage handling systems; and for other aviation security-
related capital improvement projects. Vision 100 set the federal
share of costs for such projects at 90% for large and medium hub
airports, and at 95% for all other airports and set guidelines for the
allocation of Aviation Security Capital Fund monies for these
projects. However, appropriations language (see, for example, P.L.
109-295) has limited the federal share to 75% for large and medium
hubs, and 90% for all other airports.
!required the implementation of security programs for air charter
operators who use aircraft weighing more than 12,500 pounds
maximum takeoff weight.
!required the Government Accountability Office (GAO) to review the
proposed CAPPS II passenger prescreening system and prevented
the TSA from fully implementing this program until the Under
Secretary for Border and Transportation Security certified that a
variety of enumerated issues pertaining to civil liberties, privacy,
data protection, system security, system performance, and system
oversight had been adequately addressed. The TSA has since
scrapped the CAPPS II program and is developing an alterative
prescreening system called “Secure Flight.”
!authorized flight crew members of all-cargo airlines to voluntarily
participate in the Federal Flight Deck Officer Program that trains
and deputizes armed pilots to guard aircraft cockpits against hostile
attacks. Vision 100 also expanded the program to include other
flight crew members, such as flight engineers, in addition to pilots.
!requires the promulgation of regulations to ensure the security of
foreign and domestic aircraft repair stations. The Act also requires
the TSA, in coordination with the FAA, to complete a security
review and audit of foreign repair stations that work on air carrier
aircraft and components.
!modified the background check requirements for foreign pilots
seeking flight training in the United States. The Act transferred the
duties of conducting these background checks from the Department
of Justice to the DHS. The provisions require flight schools or
instructors to provide notification and identification information for
individuals seeking training in smaller aircraft, weighing less than
12,500 pounds, and require background checks be completed before
training can be initiated in larger aircraft. The legislation authorizes



fee collections to offset the costs of conducting these background
checks.94
The Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act of 2004. The
Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act (P.L. 108-458) contains numerous
provisions related to aviation security, many directly addressing the concerns and
recommendations of the 9/11 Commission. The Act:
!requires the Department of Homeland Security to develop, prepare,
implement, and update as needed, a National Strategy for
Transportation Security as well as modal-specific security plans
including a plan for aviation security. The modal security plan for
aviation is to include a threat matrix outlining each threat to the
United States civil aviation system and the corresponding layers of
security in place to address these threats and a plan for mitigation
and reconstitution of the aviation system in the event of a terrorist
attack.
!requires the TSA to issue guidance for the use of biometrics in
airport access control systems and establish biometric credential and
authentication procedures to identify law enforcement officers
authorized to carry firearms aboard passenger aircraft. The Act
authorizes $20 million, in addition to any other authorized amounts,
for research and development of biometric technologies for aviation
security. The Act also authorizes $1 million to establish a center of
excellence in biometric technologies.
!required the TSA to begin system testing of an advanced passenger
prescreening system by January 1, 2005. Although the Act does not
provide a deadline for the completion of testing the prescreening
system, it requires the TSA to begin to assume the role of passenger
prescreening and checking passenger names against watch lists no
later than 180 days after completing that testing. The Act requires
the TSA to establish redress and remedy procedures for passengers
who are delayed or denied boarding because of being falsely
identified or targeted by the system, and requires the TSA to ensure
that the number of such false positives is minimized. The Act also
requires the TSA to establish an oversight board and implement
safeguards to ensure the security and integrity of the system and
address and resolve any privacy concerns. The Act also requires that
the DHS prescreening of international flights to or from the United
States be conducted prior to departure.
!requires that individuals seeking FAA certificates, such as pilots and
mechanics, as well as individuals requesting unescorted access to


94 For further discussion, see CRS Report RL32498, Vision 100: Historical Review of the
Century of Aviation Reauthorization Act (P.L. 108-176), by Bart Elias, John W. Fischer,
and Robert S. Kirk.

airport secure areas and air operations areas be screened against the
consolidated and integrated terrorist watch list. The Act also
requires the TSA to establish a process where air charter and leasing
companies can voluntarily submit information regarding prospective
customers seeking to use aircraft weighing more than 12,500 pounds
for prescreening.
!requires the Security Privacy Officer of the Department of Homeland
Security to report on the impact of the automatic selectee and no fly
lists on privacy and civil liberties and the Director of National
Intelligence, in consultation with the Secretary of Homeland
Security, the Secretary of State, and the Attorney General, to report
on the criteria and standards applied in placing the names of
individuals on the consolidated screening watch list.
!directs the DHS to give high priority to developing, testing,
improving, and deploying airport checkpoint screening technologies
to detect nonmetallic, chemical, biological, and radiological
weapons, and explosives on passenger and carry-on items and
requires the DHS to create a strategic plan for the deployment and
use of explosive detection equipment at airport screening
checkpoints. The Act requires the TSA to initiate a pilot program to
test advanced airport checkpoint screening systems at five or more
airports by March 31, 2005 and authorizes $150 million per year in
FY2005 and FY2006 to carry out this pilot. The Act also requires
the TSA to carry out and report on a human factors study to better
understand problems with screener performance and take such action
as may be necessary to improve the job performance of airport
screening personnel.
!requires the Federal Air Marshal Service to continue operational
initiatives to protect the anonymity of Federal air marshals. The Act
also provides for training law enforcement officers authorized to
carry firearms on passenger aircraft in inflight counterterrorism and
weapons handling procedures and in the identification of fraudulent
identification documents such as passports and visas. The Act also
encourages the President to pursue international agreements to allow
the maximum deployment of Federal air marshals on international
flights, and authorizes the DHS to provide air marshal training to
foreign law enforcement personnel.
!authorizes the TSA to take necessary action to expedite the
installation and use of in-line baggage screening equipment at
airports. The Act further requires the TSA to establish a schedule to
expedite this activity and study cost-sharing options among federal,
state, and local governments, and the private sector for integrating
in-line baggage screening systems. The Act increases the
authorization for the aviation security capital fund by authorizing up
to $400 million per year through FY2007, in addition to the initial



$250 million deposited from aviation security fee collections set
forth in Vision 100.
!directs the TSA to study the application of readily available wireless
communication technologies to enable cabin crew members to
discreetly notify the pilot in the case of a security breach or safety
issue occurring in the cabin.
!requires the FAA to begin issuing tamper resistant pilot licences
with a photograph of the bearer. The license is to be capable of
accommodating a digital photograph, a biometric, or any other
unique identifier considered necessary for identification purposes.
!requires the TSA to develop and report to Congress on standards for
determining appropriate screener staffing levels at airports that
provide necessary levels of security and keep passenger wait times
to a minimum. The DHS is also to study the feasibility of
integrating operations of the screening workforce and other aviation
security-related DHS functions to coordinate these activities and
increase their efficiency and effectiveness. The Act also authorizes
the expenditure of $100 million for research and development of
improved explosive detection systems and directs the TSA to
develop a plan and guidelines for implementing these systems.
!required the TSA to prohibit airline passengers from carrying butane
lighters and any other objects considered by the TSA to be
inappropriate carry-on items.
!directs the President to urgently pursue international treaties to limit
the availability, transfer, and proliferation of Man-portable Air
Defense Systems (MANPADS), such as shoulder-fired missiles,
worldwide. The Act further directs the President to continue to
pursue international arrangements for the destruction of excess,
obsolete, and illicit MANPADS stockpiles worldwide. The Act
requires the President to report on diplomatic efforts to address
MANPADS non-proliferation and requires the Secretary of State to
provide the Congress with annual briefings on the status of these
efforts. The Act also requires the FAA to establish a process for
expedited certification of airworthiness and safety for missile
defense systems that can be mounted on commercial aircraft. The
Act also requires the DHS to provide a report within one year
assessing the vulnerability of aircraft to MANPADS attacks and
plans for securing airports and aircraft from this threat.
!requires that a pilot program be established to evaluate the use of
blast-resistant cargo containers. The Act authorizes $2 million to
carry out this pilot program. The Act also authorizes $200 million
each year through FY2007 for improved air cargo and airport
security related to the transportation of cargo on both passenger
aircraft and all-cargo aircraft, and $100 million per year through



FY2007 for the research, development, and deployment of
technologies to better identify, track, and screen air cargo. The Act
establishes a grant program to encourage the development of
advanced air cargo security technology. The Act also requires the
TSA to issue a final rule regarding its proposed regulations for the
security of cargo operations for both passenger and all-cargo aircraft.
Finally, the Act requires the DHS, in coordination with the
Department of Defense and the FAA, to report on the threats posed
by international cargo shipments bound for the United States and
provide an analysis of the potential for establishing secure facilities
along established international aviation routes for the purposes of
diverting and securing aircraft believed to pose a security threat.
In addition to the air-cargo security provisions in the Intelligence Reform and
Terrorism Prevention Act of 2004, the Department of Homeland Security
Appropriations Act, 2005 (P.L 108-334, Sec. 513) directs the DHS to research,
develop, and procure certified systems to inspect and screen air cargo on passenger
aircraft at the earliest date possible and amend security directives and procedures to,
at a minimum, triple the percentage of cargo inspected on passenger aircraft.
Policy Concerns Not Addressed In Enacted Legislation. Since several
major provisions pertaining to aviation security were enacted during the 108th
Congress – many directly reflecting the concerns and recommendations of the 9/11
Commission – there are few policy concerns that have not been addressed to someth
degree. During the 109 Congress, aviation security legislation directly addressing
9/11 Commission findings and recommendations were not taken up. However, two
areas where some may consider that policy concerns have not been adequately
addressed through legislation include general aviation security and air cargo security
procedures and oversight.
The 9/11 Commission made brief reference to concerns over the security of
general aviation operations, however it did not make any formal recommendationsth
to address this concern. During the 108 Congress, legislation on the security of
general aviation operations focused on airport and airspace restrictions and
examining ways to alleviate what some believed to be unnecessary constraints on
certain operations. For example, a provision in Vision 100 required the DHS to
develop and implement a security plan allowing general aviation flights to resume
at Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport but set no timetable for carrying out
this provision. The TSA has now implemented regulations allowing certain general
aviation flights, adhering to extensive operational requirements, to operate to and
from Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport. In appropriations language,
however, temporary flight restrictions over stadiums and other venues during major
outdoor sports events were kept in full force and made permanent. Arguably, the
legislation pertaining to general aviation security enacted to date has been viewed by
many as not being as cohesive and comprehensive as legislation addressing other
aviation security concerns.
Some may also argue that comprehensive legislation pertaining to air cargo
security operations and oversight and expansion of the known-shipper program have
not been adequately addressed. Specifically, comprehensive measures that had been



passed by the Senate in the 108th Congress (see S. 165, 108th Congress) were stripped
from the final version of the Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act of
2004 (P.L. 108-458) and replaced by language directing the TSA to issue final
rulemaking addressing these issues. This was presumably done because the TSA’s
regulatory proposals largely reflected the intent of the proposed legislation.
However, because Congress did not formally enact several of these specific
provisions pertaining to air cargo security operations and oversight, the 110th
Congress may be particularly interested in oversight of the TSA’s implementation of
its air cargo security rules and its air cargo strategic plan to ensure that they meet
desired objectives.
Port and Maritime Security95
Commission Concerns and Recommendations. The 9/11 Commission
was not as specific in making recommendations for non-aviation modes of96
transportation as it was for aviation. However, one conclusion of the 9/11
Commission is that transportation security resources are not being “allocated to the
greatest risks in a cost effective way... Opportunities to do harm are as great, or
greater, in maritime or surface transportation [than in aviation].”97 The 9/11
Commission also reported that deployment of scanning technologies designed to
screen containers that can be transported by plane, ship, truck, or rail is still years98
away.
Under “Strategies for Aviation and Transportation Security,” the 9/11
Commission recommended that the federal government identify and evaluate the
transportation assets that need to be protected, set risk-based priorities for defending
them, select the most practical and cost-effective ways of doing so, and then develop
a plan, budget, and funding to implement the effort. The Commission recommended
that the plan assign roles and missions to the relevant authorities (federal, state,
regional, and local) and to private stakeholders. The Commission further noted that
perfection is unattainable but that terrorists should perceive that potential targets are
defended in order to deter them. It also recommended that Congress set specific
dates for the completion of these plans.
Congressional Response. Since September 11, 2001, Congress has
enacted two major port and maritime security acts. The Maritime Transportation
Security Act of 2002 (MTSA, P.L. 107-295), which was passed by Congress on


95 Prepared by John Frittelli, Specialist in Transportation, Resources, Science, and Industry
Division.
96 Another commission, The Interagency Commission on Crime and Security in U.S.
Seaports, that was established by the Clinton Administration in April 1999 and which
reported their findings in the fall of 2000, made 20 specific recommendations for improving
port security, most of which have been acted upon since September 11, 2001. This
commission’s report is available at [http://www.securitymanagement
.com/library/seaport1200.pdf].
97 The 9/11 Commission Report, p. 391.
98 Ibid., pp. 391-92.

November 25, 2002, requires ports and vessels to take certain security measures to
safeguard their operations and puts the U.S. Coast Guard in charge of enforcing these
security measures. The SAFE Ports Act (P.L. 109-347), which was passed by
Congress on September 30, 2006, requires shippers to take certain security measures
to safeguard their cargo from terrorist infiltration and puts U.S. Customs and Border
Protection (CBP) in charge of ensuring compliance. Sections 70102 and 70103 of
MTSA requires the DHS to prepare a National Maritime Transportation Security Plan
and vulnerability assessments of individual marine facilities and vessels. However,
these two sections of MTSA did not impose deadlines on DHS in carrying out the
prescribed security planning activities. Section 4072 of IRTPA (P.L. 108-458)
imposed a deadline of April 1, 2005 for completion of the National Maritime
Transportation Security Plan and a deadline of December 31, 2004 for the completion
of marine facility and vessel vulnerability assessments. The Administration
completed its National Strategy for Maritime Security in September 200599 and
completed a National Strategy for Transportation Security in August 2006.100
The Coast Guard and Maritime Transportation Act of 2004 (P.L. 108-293) was
signed into law on August 9, 2004. Title VIII of the Act contains a number of
provisions related to maritime security, many of which add specificity to provisions
in MTSA. Among other things, the Act requires the DHS to submit a plan to
Congress implementing a maritime intelligence system (section 803); it requires the
DHS to submit a plan for a maritime security grant program, including
recommendations on how funds should be allocated (section 804); it requires the
DOT to investigate and examine sensors that are able to track marine containers
throughout their supply chain and detect hazardous and radioactive materials within
the containers (section 808); it requires the DHS to report on the costs of vessel and
container inspections, and a plan for implementing secure systems of transportation,
including the need for and feasibility to inspect and monitor intermodal shipping
containers within the United States (section 809).
The SAFE Ports Act requires DHS to set up a pilot program at three overseas
ports to test the feasibility of scanning all containers bound for the United States at
those ports before they are loaded onto a ship. Currently, under the Container
Security Initiative (CSI), which is operational at 50 overseas ports accounting for
approximately 90% of transatlantic and transpacific containerized cargo, U.S. CBP
reviews cargo manifest information at these 50 loading ports to target certain high-
risk or unknown-risk containers for closer inspection.101 At U.S. ports, CBP has thus
far deployed 267 Radiation Portal Monitors (RPMs) to scan containers before they
leave the port for their final inland U.S. destination.102 By the end of 2006, CBP
expects 75% of containers will be scanned by RPMs and has a goal of scanning 98%
by the end of 2008.103 The SAFE Ports Act authorizes the CSI program and requires
DHS to scan all containers for radiation entering the 22 busiest U.S. ports by the end


99 See [http://www.whitehouse.gov/homeland/maritime-security.html#annex].
100 This document is designated as “Sensitive Security Information.”
101 U.S. CBP, CSI Fact Sheet, September 28, 2006.
102 DHS, Fact Sheet: Protecting the Homeland Post September 11, September 11, 2006.
103 Ibid.

of 2007. In addition, the Act also authorizes the Domestic Nuclear Detection Office
within DHS whose primary mission is to further advance and deploy nuclear
detection technology. The SAFE Ports Act also modifies the port security grant
program from awarding grants in a “fair and equitable” manner to awarding grants
based solely on risk.
Surface Transportation Security104
Commission Concerns and Recommendations. The 9/11 Commission
expressed concern that transportation security resources may not be allocated to the
greatest risks in a cost-effective way. They noted the government did not have a
strategic plan that analyzed assets, risks, and costs and benefits of security measures
for the entire transportation system, nor was there a specific security plan for each
transportation mode. The Commission recommended that such a strategic plan be
prepared to: identify the assets that need protection; set risk-based priorities for
defending them; select the most cost-effective ways of protecting those assets; then
develop a plan, budget, and funding to implement this strategy, assigning roles and
missions to federal, state, regional and local governments and private stakeholders.
Status of Implementation of the Recommendations. The 108th
Congress passed the Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act of 2004 (P.L.
108-458), which includes a provision directing the Department of Homeland Security
to create a National Strategy for Transportation Security (NSTS). The Act directed
that the NSTS should identify national transportation assets, set risk-based priorities
for their protection, assign responsibilities for their protection, and recommend
appropriate levels and sources of funding for these efforts. The Department of
Homeland Security submitted the NSTS, in the form of a classified report, to
Congress in the fall of 2005; an update was submitted in the summer of 2006. The
initial version of the NSTS was criticized by the original 9/11 Commission members,
acting as a private organization called the “9/11 Public Discourse Project,” as lacking
“the necessary detail to make it an effective management tool.”105 The Government
Accountability Office has noted that the use of risk management in homeland
security is relatively new, and that addressing risk across different types of106
infrastructure with multiple parties involved is highly complex.
In June 2006, DHS issued a National Infrastructure Protection Plan (NIPP)
which is to serve as a guide to using risk management principles for prioritizing
protection efforts within infrastructure sectors (e.g., transportation) and across


104 Prepared by David Randall Peterman, Analyst in Transportation, Resources, Science, and
Industry Division.
105 9/11 Public Discourse Project, Final Report on 9/11 Commission Recommendations,
December 5, 2005. Available at [http://www.9-11pdp.org/press/2005-12-05_report.pdf]
(viewed 11/29/2006).
106 Government Accountability Office, Risk Management: Further Refinements Needed to
Assess Risks and Prioritize Protective Measures at Ports and Other Critical Infrastructure,
GAO-06-91, December 15, 2005.

sectors.107 The NIPP requires that sector-specific agencies submit plans to DHS by
December 2006 identifying critical assets, evaluating the risk to them, and
developing measures to protect them.
As for the recommendation that a plan, budget, and funding be provided to
implement the NSTS which assigns roles and missions to federal, state, regional and
local governments and private stakeholders, the NIPP calls for the sector plans to be
developed by councils of federal, state, and regional and local government agencies
involved in that sector, along with sector councils made up of private sector
stakeholders. The government council for the transportation sector was formed in
January 2006, but, alone among the seventeen infrastructure sectors, the
transportation sector does not yet have a private sector council.108
Congress also began providing funding for grants to transit and rail agencies for
security improvements in the annual Department of Homeland Security
appropriations bill. Congress provided $150 million in FY2005 and FY2006 and
$175 million in FY2007 for this program. As the NSTS had not been completed at
the time the grants began, and the risk-based allocation process to implement the
NSTS has not been developed, this grant program has operated independently of the
NSTS. Several proposals have been introduced in Congress to authorize new multi-
billion dollar grant programs to fund security improvements for passenger rail, freight
rail, and public transit organizations.
Critical Infrastructure Security109
Commission Concerns and Recommendations
The 9/11 Commission expressed its concerns and recommendations regarding
critical infrastructure security in three primary areas: transportation security,
allocation of assistance to states and localities, and the adequacy of the government’s
plans, in general, to protect the nation’s critical infrastructure. The Commission
devoted most of its attention to the transportation infrastructure, and, in particular,
aviation security; making relatively specific recommendations in specific areas (e.g.,
explosive detection). It also recommended that a date specific be set for the
Department of Homeland Security to complete its security plans for all
transportation modes, as called for in the Aviation and Transportation Security Act
(P.L. 107-71). In regard to the allocation of federal assistance, the Commission
recommended that the allocation to states and localities be based on an assessment


107 Government Accountability Office, Critical Infrastructure Protection: Progress
Coordinating Government and Private Sector Efforts Varies by Sectors' Characteristics,
GAO-07-39, October 16, 2006, p. 2-3.
108 Government Accountability Office, Critical Infrastructure Protection: Progress
Coordinating Government and Private Sector Efforts Varies by Sectors' Characteristics,
GAO-07-39, October 16, 2006, p. 15.
109 Prepared by John Moteff, Specialist in Science and Technology Policy, Resources,
Science, and Industry Division.

of risks and vulnerabilities and no longer remain a “program for general revenue
sharing.” While much of the federal assistance to states and localities supports
response capabilities, some is also devoted to the protection of critical infrastructure.
In the background discussion for its final recommendation, the Commission stated
that the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) should identify those elements of
the nation’s critical infrastructure (beyond just the transportation sector) that need
protection and to develop plans to protect them. It recommended that the Department
and its oversight committees should regularly assess the types of threats facing the
nation’s critical infrastructure to determine the adequacy of the government’s plans
to protect and respond to a terrorist attack on critical infrastructure across all relevant
sectors. The rest of this discussion focuses on this last recommendation. A
discussion of the first two areas can be found elsewhere in this report under Border
and Transportation Security and Emergency Response and Preparedness. Also, a
more detailed discussion of the Commission’s recommendations related to critical
infrastructure protection and the subsequent Congressional response in the
Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act (P.L. 108-458) is given in CRS
Report RL32531, Critical Infrastructure Protections: The 9/11 Commission Report
and Congressional Response, by John D. Moteff (archived, contact author for a
copy).
Congressional Responses
Section 7306 of the Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act (P.L.
108-458) incorporated similar language to that used by the Commission in its final
recommendation. Like the Commission, it noted the responsibilities given the
Department by the Homeland Security Act to: a) carry out vulnerability and risk
assessments associated with specific threats against the nation’s critical
infrastructure; b) identify priority protective measures; and c) develop a
comprehensive national plan for securing the nation’s critical infrastructure. Section
7306 required the Secretary of Homeland Security to report to Congress, within 180
days after enactment (i.e., June 2005), on the progress being made by the Department
in assessing the vulnerability and risk associated with the nation’s critical
infrastructure, and on the adequacy of the government’s plans to protect that
infrastructure and the readiness of the government to respond to threats. This
reporting is to be done in conjunction with the reporting requirements of the
Homeland Security Financial Accountability Act (P.L. 108-330). The Homeland
Security Financial Accountability Act requires the Department to submit a
Performance and Accountability report for each fiscal year. It also amended the
requirements for the Future Years Homeland Security Program (i.e., a five year
program and planning document required by the Homeland Security Act), which is
to be submitted to Congress with, or about the same time as, the Department’s annual
budget request.
Vulnerability and risk assessments of critical infrastructures began shortly after
the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001. These were primarily conducted by
owners/operators of the infrastructure themselves, to varying degrees, sometimes
with the assistance of federal agencies, and using a variety of techniques and
assumptions. Shortly after the Department of Homeland Security was established,
the Department began identifying, on its own, certain critical infrastructure assets or
sites as having a high-priority. The Department planned to assess the vulnerability



of each of these assets or sites and to assist local law enforcement in developing
Buffer Zone Protection Plans. DHS also made itself available to discuss protective
strategies with the owners/operators of those sites, on a voluntary basis. DHS keeps
the process by which it decides which assets are high-priority relatively secret, stating
only that it is based on an initial assessment of vulnerability and the potential
consequences associated with a possible attack. The sites or assets themselves are
considered classified. However, its initial list of priority assets and sites was met
with some criticism.110
To meet its responsibility to coordinate a national effort to protect the nation’s
critical infrastructure, the Department released its long-awaited National
Infrastructure Protection Plan in June 2006. The Plan outlines a standardized process
by which each critical infrastructure sector is to assess and integrate threat,111
vulnerability, and consequences, to determine risks and to prioritize actions to reduce
those risks. This is to form the basis for Sector Specific Plans for each critical
infrastructure sector, which the National Plan expects to be completed by the end of
2006. DHS will use the same process to integrate the Sector Plans in a way that will
allow it to identify national priorities, at some yet-to-be-determined date in the future.
The DHS appears to meet its reporting obligations under Section 7306 through
its Department of Homeland Security’s annual Performance Budget (which
implements the current year of the Future Years Program) and the subsequent
Performance and Accountability Report published some time after the end of each
fiscal year. The Performance Budget and Performance and Accountability Report
associate programs, performance measures, and resource allocations with the
strategic goals and objectives as laid out in the Department’s Strategic Plan. The
Department’s Strategic Plan, released February 2004, listed 7 goals and a number
of objectives under each goal. A number of goals and objectives could be considered
relevant to measuring the progress being made in assessing vulnerability and risk and
touching upon the adequacy of plans to protect critical infrastructure and
preparedness.
For example, in the FY2007 Performance Budget, the Infrastructure Protection
Program (listed under Prevention, one of the 7 goals) has two relevant performance
measures. One of the performance measures is the percent of high-priority critical
infrastructure sites at which a vulnerability assessment has been conducted. The
target for this measure in FY2005 was 10%, increasing to 25% for FY2007.
According to the FY2007 Performance Budget, DHS stated that vulnerability
assessments had been conducted at 14% of the sites. Percentages were not available
for FY2006 or FY2007. The other performance measure was the percent of high-
priority critical infrastructure sites at which a Buffer Zone Protection Plan had been
implemented. The target in FY2005 was 70%. According to the Performance
Budget, only 18% of the sites had implemented Buffer Zone Protection Plans. The


110 According to a DHS Inspector General’s report, DHS itself considered its initial priority
list unreliable. See, Department of Homeland Security. Office of the Inspector General.
Progress in Developing the National Asset Database. OIG-06-04. June 2006. p. 16.
111 Threat information is provided by DHS’s Homeland Infrastructure Threat and Risk
Analysis Center, which provides an up-to-date set of threat scenarios for each sector.

target for this measure was reduced to 38% for FY2007. The Performance Budget
did not mention the actual percentage of sites that had implemented plans after
FY2005. Similarly, other programs support other goals and objectives associated
with preparedness and anticipating future threats.
Numerous bills have been introduced that address infrastructure security within
specific sectors. Some have made it into public law. However, none address the
coordination of a national effort across all sectors that characterize the Commission’s
recommendation.
Emergency Preparedness and Response and the

9/11 Commission112


Commission Concerns and Recommendations
The 9/11 Commission report presented distinct descriptions of the emergency
response actions taken in New York City and at the Pentagon after the attacks. The
report described operational complications in Manhattan that did not occur in
Virginia. The Commission found that deficiencies in planning and communications
around the World Trade Center towers contributed to the deaths of police and fire
officials as well as civilians. By comparison, the Commission concluded that
emergency response at the Pentagon was “generally effective,” largely because the
responding agencies used a standard, formalized, incident command system and
coordinated communications networks to marshal and coordinate multiple113
agencies.
The primary emergency preparedness and response concerns identified by the
Commission focused on three general deficiencies: the lack of standard command
procedures, the lack of a standard communications protocol and standards, and
insufficient emergency preparedness steps taken by the private sector. According to
the Commission report, the adoption of standardized response procedures, public
safety communications standards, and other warning system enhancements, as well
as increased emergency preparedness activity in the private sector, would resolve
these problems. Accordingly, the Commission recommended that Congress, the


112 Prepared by Keith Bea, Specialist in American National Government, Government and
Finance Division, with contributions by Shawn Reese, Analyst in American National
Government, Government and Finance Division, and Linda Moore, Analyst in
Telecommunications Policy, Resources, Science and Industry Division.
113 The Commission noted, however, that liability and indemnification concerns impeded
some of the response at the Pentagon and exist throughout the nation. Also of note, the less
disastrous results of the Pentagon attack can be explained to a large extent by target and
population differences—the jet that struck the Pentagon occurred in a relatively isolated area
and directly affected just one building, whereas the jets that destroyed the World Trade
Center towers destroyed a significant part of a major metropolitan area. These differences
alone meant that the emergency responders in New York City faced a more complex task
than those in Virginia.

Executive Branch, state and local governments, and private sector entities take
specified actions.114
Recommendations by the Commission regarding the development of standards
may be categorized in four areas — (1) encouraging and facilitating the development
of open architecture and voluntary standards for interoperable public safety
communications and warning systems, (2) the resolution of liability concerns to
expedite mutual aid efforts among the states, (3) adoption of a formalized and
intergovernmental incident response command system, and (4) the consideration of
private sector emergency preparedness standards in assessments of insurability and
creditworthiness. Steps to be taken to resolve these gaps rested largely with
administrative entities.
The Commission also recommended congressional action in two resource
allocation areas — (1) the distribution of federal funding for first responders based
on risks and vulnerabilities,115 and (2) the reallocation of electromagnetic radio
spectrum for public safety communications purposes.
Congressional Responses
The 108th Congress acted upon some of the concerns and recommendations of
the Commission through enactment of the Intelligence Reform and Terrorism
Prevention Act of 2004 (P.L. 108-458), hereafter the Intelligence Reform Act. While
this legislation addressed some of the issues, Members of Congress left the two
resource allocation issues unresolved, one of which (spectrum allocation) was
addressed by the 109th Congress.
Enactments. The Commission’s call for the development of standards
resulted in the inclusion of several provisions in the Intelligence Reform Act. First,
the statute addressed concerns about mutual aid agreements by authorizing federal,
state and local officials in the National Capitol Region to enter into mutual aid
agreements for emergency response.116 Specifically, the Act authorizes District of
Columbia officials to purchase liability and indemnification insurance or self insure
against claims, provides that the laws of the emergency responders’ “home” states
prevail in litigation actions, and requires the establishment of a program to support
emergency management compacts throughout the nation.


114 Four years after the attacks, some of the concerns raised by the Commission in the final
report appeared to remain unresolved. Problems identified in the response to Hurricane
Katrina (August 2005) indicate that federal and non-federal preparations for catastrophic
incidents require further improvement.
115 For information on proposals in the 108th Congress related to the distribution of federal
funds to emergency responders, see CRS Report RL33583, Homeland Security Grants:
Evolution of Program Guidance and Grant Allocation Methods, by Shawn Reese.
116 This text reflects language approved by the Senate. The House language, not approved
by conferees, would have authorized all local, state, or federal officials to negotiate mutual
aid agreements for emergency assistance. Matters of liability, worker compensation, and
judicial review would also have been addressed by the House approved text.

With regard to the spectrum allocation issue, the Homeland Security Act (P.L.
107-296) and the Intelligence Reform Act required that the Secretary of the
Department of Homeland Security, in consultation with other Administration
officials, establish a national strategy for public safety interoperable communications
that includes voluntary consensus standards. The Intelligence Reform Act also
required that the Secretary establish a program for interoperable communications in
high risk urban areas and two pilot projects in high threat urban areas that might
serve as national models. In other legislation (the Deficit Reduction Act, P.L. 109-
171), Congress addressed the spectrum allocation issue by requiring that the public
safety community be given suitable access by February 18, 2009.117 This legislation
also required that the Federal Communications Commission lead a study on spectrum
needs for public safety and homeland security. The report was released December
2005; a key conclusion was that it was premature for the FCC to make specific
recommendations to increase the amount of spectrum available for public safety.118
Despite these congressional actions, DHS has been criticized for insufficient
response to the mandates for action expressed in the Intelligence Reform Act.
Accordingly, the 109th Congress provided further direction in the “21st Century
Emergency Communications Act of 2006” (Subtitle D, Title VI, of P.L. 109-295),
by establishing an Office of Emergency Communications within DHS and requiring
that the director of the office, among other responsibilities, assist the DHS Secretary
in carrying out the program responsibilities required by the Intelligence Reform Act
and working with officials of the National Communications System on the
establishment of a national response capability.
The emergency preparedness and response concerns raised by the Commission
about private sector preparedness standards and adoption of a standardized incident
command system resulted in Sense of the Congress provisions in the Intelligence
Reform Act that urged administrative action.
Policy Concerns Not Addressed. Neither the 108th nor the 109th
Congresses reached agreement on how to best allocate first responder funding. The
Intelligence Reform Act included a Sense of Congress provisions that called for
action by the 109th Congress, but, as noted below, legislation was not enacted.
In addition to pressing forward with fundamental policy issues such as standardsth
development and funding, the 110 Congress could explore DHS’s response to
recently enacted legislation, such as planning and coordination at the state and
regional level for emergency communications. Legislation has also required
assessments of emergency communications capabilities,119 including an inventory


117 P.L. 109-171, Sec. 3002 (a) (1) (B).
118 Report to Congress; on the study to assess short-term and long-term needs for
allocations of additional portions of the electromagnetic spectrum for federal, state and
local emergency response providers, Federal Communications Commission, December 19,
2005, at [http://hraunfoss.fcc.gov/edocs_public/attachmatch/DOC-262865A1.pdf]. Viewed
December 27, 2005.
119 P.L. 109-295, Title VI, Sec. 671(b), ‘Title XVIII, ‘Sec. 1803 (a).

used by federal departments and agencies that identifies radio frequencies.120 The
requirements for studies on spectrum needs, as stated in the Intelligence Reform and
Terrorism Prevention Act, have apparently not met the expectations of the public
safety community, which continues to put pressure on Congress for more substantive
steps. The 110th Congress could, for example, find itself facing calls to reallocate
for public safety use channels at 700 MHz that were designated for auction by the
Deficit Reduction Act. There is also interest in creating a structure where spectrum
could be shared between the private sector and public safety.
109th Congress Activity. No legislation in the 109th Congress was enacted
that modified or altered the distribution method of federal homeland security
assistance to states and localities. In the FY2006 and FY2007 DHS appropriations
(P.L. 109-90 and P.L. 109-295), Congress continued to require DHS to allocate
0.75% of homeland security funding to states121, with the remainder of total
appropriations to be allocated at the discretion of DHS. In FY2006, DHS allocated
the discretionary portions of homeland security grants on the basis of two factors:
risk and effectiveness. DHS calculated two kinds of risk: asset-based risk, which
uses threat values derived from the U.S. intelligence community’s assessment of
threats to specific critical infrastructure, and geographic-based risk, which uses
values based on inherent risks associated with geographic areas, taking into account
such factors as international borders, terrorism reports and investigations, and
population density.122
Department of Defense and the 9/11 Commission123
Commission Concerns and Recommendations
Aside from ongoing anti-terrorist military operations (see U.S. Military Forces
and the War on Terrorism), the 9/11 Commission’s attention to the Department of
Defense was limited to its recommendation that Congress should “regularly assess
the strategies and planning” of the new Northern Command (NORTHCOM)which
is responsible for coordinating U.S. mainland air and coastal defense. The
Commission was particularly concerned that the North American Air Defense
Command, a major component of NORTHCOM, expand its focus to include threats
from terrorist use of domestic civil aircraft.


120 P.L. 109-295, Title VI, Sec. 671(b), ‘Title XVIII, ‘Sec. 1803 (a) (5).
121 P.L. 107-56, Sec. 1014, (USA PATRIOT Act).
122 U.S. Department of Homeland Security, Office for Grants and Training, FY2006 HSGP
Fact Sheet: Risk Analysis (Washington: May 2006), p. 2.
123 Prepared by Steve Bowman, Specialist in National Defense, Foreign Affairs, Defense,
and Trade Division.

Congressional Responses
Congress has not undertaken any special review of Northern Command, aside
from routine oversight exercised in its consideration of the FY2007 DOD
appropriations legislation. The North American Air Defense Command and the
Federal Aviation Agency have integrated their air traffic control system, allowing
NORTHCOM to monitor domestic civilian aircraft.124
Homeland Security Oversight: Congressional
Options 125
Commission Concerns and Recommendations
The 9/11 Commission proposed that the House and Senate should each have a
single authorizing committee responsible for homeland security, as well as one
appropriating subcommittee for homeland security. The commission also suggested
that the authorizing panel for homeland security should be a standing committee with
a nonpartisan staff. A key objective of the commission was to urge the formation
in each chamber of a principal panel responsible for oversight and review of the
recently-created Department of Homeland Security (DHS). The report of the
commission stated there were at least 88 committees and subcommittees of Congress
that had some jurisdiction over DHS. Accordingly, the commission suggested some
consolidation of committee jurisdiction to minimize turf conflicts and to reduce the
number of panels top DHS officials must appear before as witnesses.
Congressional Responses
Each chamber took steps to address jurisdictional issues related to homelandth
security. At the start of the 108 Congress, the House created a temporary Select
Committee on Homeland Security with both legislative and oversight authority for
certain homeland security issues. The Senate kept oversight authority for the new
department in its Committee on Governmental Affairs. In addition, early in 2003 the
House Appropriations Committee created a new Homeland Security Appropriations
Subcommittee, while keeping the total number of subcommittees at the panel’s
traditional 13. The Senate Appropriations Committee followed suit and also
established a counterpart subcommittee on homeland security. Later in the 108th
Congress, the Senate adopted a homeland security and intelligence committee
reorganization plan (S.Res. 445); it renamed the Governmental Affairs Committee
the Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs Committee and assigned it limited
legislative and oversight authority over DHS. The committee, too, has broad
oversight jurisdiction under Senate Rule XXV over the “efficiency, economy, and


124 For further information, see CRS Report RS21322, Homeland Security: Evolving Roles
and Missions for United States Northern Command, by Steve Bowman and James
Crowhurst.
125 Prepared by Walter J. Oleszek, Senior Specialist in the Legislative Process, Government
and Finance Division.

effectiveness of all agencies and departments of the Government,” which suggests
that the panel could oversee a wide range of Federal entities that have some
responsibility for homeland security.
When the 109th Congress began, the House transformed its temporary select
panel on homeland security into a standing committee. The new permanent
committee was assigned, among other matters, jurisdiction for overall homeland
security policy and organizational and administrative aspects of DHS. Further, the
new committee was granted broad oversight authority over government-wide
homeland security matters. Even with creation of a new committee, oversight of
DHS is still spread among six other House authorizing committees: Energy and
Commerce, Financial Services, Government Reform, Judiciary, Transportation and
Infrastructure, and Ways and Means. “We envision a system of purposeful
redundancy,” said the House Rules Chairman during January 4, 2005, floor debate.
“By that, we mean more than one level of oversight and an atmosphere in which the
competition of ideas is encouraged.” Both the new House standing committee and
the renamed Senate committee use a partisan staff model.
Civil Liberties and Government Information Policies
and Practices
Driver’s Licenses, Personal Identification Cards, Birth
Certificates, and Social Security Numbers126
Commission Concerns and Recommendations. The 9/11
Commission’s final report recommended that “the federal government should set
standards for the issuance of birth certificates, and sources of identification, such as
drivers’ licenses.” Specifically noting the rising problem of identification fraud, the
Commission also concluded that “sources of identification are the last opportunity
to ensure that people are who they say they are and to check whether they are
terrorists” (p. 390).
Congressional Responses. Drivers Licenses and Personal
Identification Cards. Congress’s initial response to the Commission’s report was
to adopt language in the Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act of 2004
specifically addressing driver’s licenses and personal identification cards.127 The
legislation empowered the Secretary of Transportation, in consultation with the
Secretary of Homeland Security, state, and local officials, to set minimum standards
for federal acceptance of driver’s licences and personal identification cards, including


126 Prepared by Todd B. Tatelman, Legislative Attorney, American Law Division.
127 Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act of 2004, P.L. 108-458 §§ 7211-7214,

118 Stat. 3638, 3825-3832 (2004).



anti-tampering and anti-fraud features.128 These provisions, however, were repealed
in May 2005 with the passage of the REAL ID Act of 2005 (REAL ID Act).129
The REAL ID Act establishes minimum issuance standards for federal
recognition of identification documents.130 In addition, Section 202(c)(2)(C)
establishes a system of temporary licenses and identification cards that can be issued
by the states to applicants who can present evidence that they fall into one of six
categories.131 States are also required to adopt procedures and practices to ensure
both the security and retention of identity documents. The Department of Homeland
Security was delegated the authority to promulgate regulations regarding the
implementation of the REAL ID Act as well as the authority to oversee state and
local compliance with the Act.
The REAL ID Act contains language requiring that states, if they elect to issue
a driver’s license or personal identification card that does not conform to the act, use
a unique color identifier or design to alert officials that the document is not to be
accepted for any official purpose. Moreover, the Act includes a provision requiring
the states to maintain a motor vehicle database that, at a minimum, contains all data
fields printed on the driver’s license or identification card and all motor vehicle
driver history, including violations, suspensions, or points.132
Pursuant to the REAL ID Act, the Secretary of Homeland Security is authorized
to make grants to states and promulgate regulations and standards (in consultation
with both the Secretary of Transportation as well as with the states). As of this
writing, the regulations required by the statute have not been promulgated. As a
result, it is unclear what the current implementation status is of these provisions.


128 Id. at § 7212.
129 Emergency Supplemental Appropriations Act for Defense, the Global War on Terror, and
Tsunami Relief, 2005, P.L. 109-13 Division B, 119 Stat. 231, 302 (2005).
130 Before a state can issue a driver’s license or photo identification card, a state will have
to verify with the issuing agency, the issuance, validity and completeness of: (1) a photo
identification document or a non-photo document containing both the individual’s full legal
name and date of birth; (2) date of birth; (3) proof of a social security number (SSN) or
verification of the individual’s ineligibility for a SSN; and (4) name and address of the
individual’s principal residence.
131 Persons are only eligible for temporary driver’s licenses or identification cards if
evidence is presented that they: (1) have a valid, unexpired non-immigrant visa or non-
immigrant visa status for entry into the United States; (2) have a pending or approved
application for asylum in the U.S.; (3) have entered into the U.S. in refugee status; (4) have
a pending or approved application for temporary protected status in the United States; (5)
have approved deferred action status; or (6) have a pending application for adjustment of
status to that of an alien lawfully admitted for permanent residence in the United States or
conditional permanent resident status in the United States.
132 For a more complete discussion of the provisions of the REAL ID Act, see CRS Report
RL32754, Immigration: Analysis of the Major Provisions of the REAL ID Act of 2005, by
Michael Garcia, Margaret Mikyung Lee, and Todd B. Tatelman.

Birth Certificates. The Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act
of 2004 required the Secretary of Health and Human Services to promulgate, within
a year of enactment, minimum standards for birth certificates to be used by federal
agencies for official purposes, with the effective date delayed until 2 years after the133
regulations are issued. The regulations are to require measures “designed to
prevent tampering, counterfeiting, or otherwise duplicating the birth certificate for
fraudulent purposes” and to require “proof and verification of identity as a condition
of issuance of a birth certificate, with additional security measures for the issuance
of a birth certificate for a person who is not the applicant.” Concern has been
expressed that this provision may have an impact on genealogical and other historical
research. The statute also provides for grants to assist the States in conforming to the
new standards. As of this writing, the regulations required by the statute have not
been promulgated. As a result, it is unclear what the current implementation status
is of these provisions.
Social Security Numbers.134 The Intelligence Reform and Terrorism
Prevention Act of 2004 also required the Commissioner of Social Security to
implement the following: restrict the issuance of multiple replacement social security
cards to any individual to 3 per year and to 10 for the life of the individual, except
where there is a minimal opportunity for fraud; create standards for the verification
of documents or records submitted to establish eligibility for original or replacement
cards; require independent verification of all records provided by applicants for social
security numbers other than at birth; and add death and fraud indicators to the
verification system for employers, state agencies and others. In addition, an
interagency task force to further improve the security of social security cards and
numbers is to be created.
The Commissioner was also directed to improve the system of issuing social
security cards to newborn children, including (1) the assignment of social security
accounts to unnamed children; (2) the issuance of more than one account number to
the same child; and (3) other opportunities to obtain a social security account by
means of fraud. The Commissioner is to report to Congress on the improvements
made to the newborn applicant process and options for ensuring the security of the
enumeration at birth process.
Finally, the law expressly prohibits state and local governments from displaying
social security numbers on driver’s licenses, motor vehicle registrations, or on any
other document issued for identification. As of this writing, the regulations required
by the statute have not been promulgated. As a result, it is unclear what the current
implementation status is of these provisions.
Future Considerations. Much of the recent debate with respect to the
REAL ID Act has focused on two issues, implementation costs and privacy concerns.
Until the regulations and requirements are published for public comment, however,
there remain many unanswered questions and concerns. No new legislation has been
proposed to date, although there are many third-party groups that are recommending


133 Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act of 2004, supra note 127 at § 7211.
134 Id. at § 7213.

a variety of options ranging from repeal of the statute to delaying the effective date
pending potential implementation issues. With respect to birth certificates and social
security numbers, regulation and implementation has been slow to develop, but we
are not aware of any introduced legislation targeted to address either of these issues.
Protection of Civil Liberties135
Commission Concerns and Recommendations. The final report of the
9/11 Commission recommended that “there should be a board within the executive
branch to oversee adherence to the guidelines we recommend and the commitment
the government makes to defend our civil liberties.” (p. 395). This recommendation
was the third of three made in a section of the report concerning the protection of
civil liberties. In the other two, the commission recommended that (1) the President,
in the course of determining the guidelines for information sharing among
government agencies and by them with the private sector, “should safeguard the136
privacy of individuals about whom information is shared”; and (2) the “burden of
proof for retaining a particular governmental power should be on the executive, to
explain (a) that the power actually materially enhances security and (b) that there is
adequate supervision of the executive’s use of the powers to ensure protection of
civil liberties. If the power is granted,” the report added, “there must be adequate
guidelines and oversight to properly confine its use.”137 Read together, these
recommendations called for a board to oversee adherence to presidential guidelines
on information sharing that safeguard the privacy of individuals about whom
information is shared, and adherence to guidelines on the executive’s continued use
of powers that materially enhance security. The report offered no additional
commentary on the composition, structure, or operations of the recommended board.
Such a board, however, had been proposed in December 2003 in the fifth and final
report of the Advisory Panel to Assess Domestic Response Capabilities for Terrorism
Involving Weapons of Mass Destruction, chaired by former Virginia Governor James138
S. Gilmore III.
On August 27, 2004, President George W. Bush issued E.O. 13353 establishing
the President’s Board on Safeguarding Americans’ Civil Liberties within the139
Department of Justice. Chaired by the Deputy Attorney General and composed of
at least 19 other senior counsels and leaders largely from within the intelligence and


135 Prepared by Harold C. Relyea, Specialist in American National Government, Government
and Finance Division.
136 Section 892 of the Homeland Security Act of 2002 directs the President to prescribe and
implement procedures for sharing relevant and appropriate homeland security information
with other federal agencies, as well as state and local government personnel. 116 Stat. 2253;

6 U.S.C. § 482.


137 U.S. National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States, The 9/11
Commission Report, pp. 394-395.
138 U.S. Advisory Panel to Assess Domestic Response Capabilities for Terrorism Involving
Weapons of Mass Destruction, V. Forging America’s New Normalcy: Securing Our
Homeland, Preserving Our Liberty (Arlington, VA: Rand Corporation, 2003), pp. 22-23.
139 Federal Register, vol. 69, Sept. 1, 2004, pp. 53585-53587.

homeland security communities, the board was to advise the President regarding civil
liberties policy, gather information and make assessments regarding such policy and
its implementation, make recommendations to the President, refer information about
possible violations of such policy by a federal official or employee for prompt action,
enhance cooperation and coordination among federal departments and agencies in
implementing such policy, and undertake other efforts to protect civil liberties as the
President might direct.
Congressional Responses. When enacting the Intelligence Reform and
Terrorism Prevention Act, Congress responded to the commission’s
recommendations for protecting civil liberties in various regards. Section 1061
created a Privacy and Civil Liberties Oversight Board (PCLOB).140 Located within
the Executive Office of the President, the board consists of a chair, vice chair, and
three additional members, all appointed by, and serving at the pleasure of, the
President. Nominees for the chair and vice chair positions are subject to Senate
approval. While the board does not have subpoena power, it may request the
assistance of the Attorney General in obtaining desired information from persons
other than federal departments and agencies. It also has broad access to information
from federal departments and agencies. On June 10, 2005, the President announced
his intention to nominate Carol E. Dinkins to be the chairman of the PCLOB, Alan
Charles Raul to be the vice chairman of the board, and Lanny J. Davis, Theodore B.
Olsen, and Francis X. Taylor to be members of the panel. Dinkins and Raul were
confirmed by the Senate on February 17, 2006. The PCLOB was appropriated $1.5
million for FY2006.141 Its appropriation for FY2007 has not been finalized.
Section 1062 of the statute expressed “the sense of Congress that each executive
department or agency with law enforcement or antiterrorism functions should
designate a privacy and civil liberties officer.” The obligation of the relevant
departments and agencies in this regard was less than mandatory. Other
arrangements in this regard, however, were subsequently realized (see below).
Section 103D established a Civil Liberties Protection Officer within the office
of the newly created Director of National Intelligence (DNI). This official has
various responsibilities for civil liberties and privacy protection within the
intelligence community. On December 7, 2005, the DNI announced the appointment
of Alexander W. Joel as the Civil Liberties Protection Officer.142
Section 1016 requires the President to consult with the Privacy and Civil
Liberties Oversight Board when issuing guidelines that protect privacy and civil
liberties in the development and utilization of an “information sharing environment”
(ISE) for the sharing of information about terrorism “in a manner consistent with
national security and with applicable legal standards relating to privacy and civil
liberties.” The role of the board and sensitivity to protecting privacy and civil


140 118 Stat. 3684.
141 119 Stat. 2396.
142 U.S. Office of the Director of National Intelligence, ODNI Announces Senior Leadership
Positions, ODNI New Release No. 7-05 (Washington: Dec. 7, 2005).

liberties in the development of the ISE were reflected in the ISE implementation plan
released on November 16, 2006.143
On March 15, 2005, Representative Carolyn B. Maloney introduced H.R. 1310,
the Protection of Civil Liberties Act, for herself and 23 bipartisan cosponsors. The
bill was referred to the Government Reform, Homeland Security, Intelligence, and
Judiciary committees. Among other modifications, the legislation, if enacted, would
have reconstituted the PCLOB as an independent agency within the executive branch,
made all appointments to the board’s membership subject to Senate confirmation,
and limited the board’s partisan composition to not more than three members being
from the same political party.144 As the 109th Congress moved toward final
adjournment, the bill remained in committee.
When reporting the Transportation, Treasury and General Government
Appropriations Bill, 2005, on September 15, 2004, the Senate Committee on
Appropriations indicated that Section 520 of the legislation (S. 2806) “directs each
agency to acquire a Chief Privacy Officer to assume primary responsibility for
privacy and data protection policy.” Section 520 appeared in Title V of the
legislation. “Those general provisions that address activities or directives affecting
all of the agencies covered in this bill,” the committee report explained, “are
contained in title V.” Thus, the provision appeared to apply only to agencies directly
funded by the legislation. “General provisions that are government wide in scope,”
noted the report, “are contained in title VI of this bill.”145
Transportation, Treasury and General Government Appropriations were among
those which came to be included in the Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2005 (H.R.
4818), and constituted Division H of that legislation.146 Within that division, Section
522 stated: “Each agency shall have a Chief Privacy Officer to assume primary
responsibility for privacy and data protection policy,” and specified nine particular
activities to be undertaken by privacy officers. The section further prescribed privacy
and data protection policies and procedures to be established, reviews to be
undertaken, and related reports to be made. Located in Title V of the division, the
requirements of the section appeared to be applicable only to agencies directly funded
by the division. Furthermore, it did not appear that the section created new positions,
but, instead, would have the prescribed privacy officer responsibilities assigned to an
appropriate individual in an existing position.147


143 U.S. Office of the Director of National Intelligence, Program Manager, Information
Sharing Environment, Information Sharing Environment Implementation Plan (Washington:
Nov. 2006), pp. 21-22, 39, 89-92.
144 See Congressional Record, daily edition, vol. 151, Mar. 16, 2005, p. E456.
145 U.S. Congress, Senate Committee on Appropriations, Transportation, Treasury and
General Government Appropriations Bill, 2005, S.Rept. 108-342, report to accompany S.thnd

2806, 108 Cong., 2 sess. (Washington: GPO, 2004), pp. 200, 202.


146 118 Stat. 2809.
147 Congressional Record, daily edition, vol. 150, Nov. 19, 2004, pp. H10358-H10359.

Subsequently, a February 11, 2005, memorandum to the heads of the executive
departments and agencies from Clay Johnson III, Deputy Director for Management,
Office of Management and Budget (OMB), appeared to sweep beyond the Section
522 requirement, and asked recipients, within the next 30 days, “to identify to OMB
the senior official who has the overall agency-wide responsibility for information
privacy issues.” Expressing the Administration’s commitment “to protecting the
information privacy rights of Americans and to ensuring Departments and agencies
continue to have effective information privacy management programs in place to
carry out this important responsibility,” it noted that a Chief Information Officer or
“another senior official (at the Assistant Secretary or equivalent level) with agency-
wide responsibility for information privacy issues” could be named.148
Balancing Security and Information Sharing149
Commission Concerns and Recommendations. The Commission
recommended a reevaluation of the balance between the security risks and costs of
disclosing information against the benefits of sharing information. While
recognizing counterintelligence concerns, the 9/11 Commission encouraged a shift
to a culture that provided incentives for sharing information so as to maximize the
likelihood of “connecting the dots” in intelligence analysis of a given situation. (p.

416-7).


Congressional and Administrative Responses. The trend toward150151
information sharing has been reflected in legislation, executive orders, a
Homeland Security Presidential Directive,152 and Attorney General guidelines.153 For


148 U.S. Office of Management and Budget, “Designation of Senior Agency Officials for
Privacy,” Memorandum for Heads of Executive Departments and Agencies from Clay
Johnson III, Deputy Director for Management (Washington: Feb. 11, 2005).
149 Prepared by Elizabeth B. Bazan, Legislative Attorney, American Law Division.
150 See, e.g., P.L. 107-56, §§ 203, 218, 504, 314, 701, 115 Stat. 272 (Oct. 26, 2001); P.L.

107-71, §§ 102, 137 (Nov. 19, 2001) 115. Stat. 597; P.L. 107-173, §§ 201-204 (May 14,


2002), 115 Stat. 543; P.L. 107-296, §§ 214,221, 891-899 (Nov. 25, 2002), 116 Stat. 2135;


P.L. 107-306, title VII (Nov. 27, 2002), 116 Stat. 2383); P.L. 108-177, §§ 316, 354, 359
(Dec. 13, 2003), 117 Stat. 2599; P.L. 108-447, Div. H, Title V, § 552 (Dec. 8, 1004), 118
Stat. 2809; P.L. 108-458, §§ 1013, 1016, 6501, 7201 (Dec. 17, 2004), 118 Stat. 3638.
151 See, e.g., E.O. 13311, E.O. 13355, E.O. 13356, E.O. 13388, discussed infra.
152 HSPD-11, issued August 27, 2004.
153 See the following guidelines issued by the Attorney General: “Guidelines for Disclosure
of Grand Jury and Electronic, Wire, and Oral Interception information identifying United
States Persons” (Sept. 23, 2002); “Guidelines Regarding Disclosure to the Director of Central
Intelligence and Homeland Security Officials of Foreign Intelligence Acquired in the Course
of a Criminal Investigation” (Sept. 23, 2002); “Guidelines Regarding Prompt Handling of
Reports of Possible Criminal Activity Involving Foreign Intelligence Sources” (Sept. 23,
2002); “Coordination of Information Relating to Terrorism” (April 11, 2002); “Cooperation
with State and Local Officials in the Fight Against Terrorism” (Nov. 13, 2001);
“Disseminating Information to Enhance Public Safety and National Security” (Sept. 21, 2001).

example, the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act (FISA)154 may be used to gather
information where a significant purpose of the investigation is to obtain foreign
intelligence information, even if the primary purpose is for law enforcement
purposes.155 Federal officers conducting electronic surveillance or physical searches
under FISA may consult with federal law enforcement officers or state, or local law
enforcement personnel to coordinate against actual or potential attack or other grave
hostile acts of a foreign power or its agent; sabotage or international terrorism by a
foreign power or its agent, or clandestine intelligence activities by an intelligence
service or network of a foreign power or its agent. 50 U.S.C. §§ 1806, 1825.156
In P.L. 107-296, the Homeland Security Act of 2002 (November 25, 2002), the
Directorate for Information Analysis and Infrastructure Protection (IAIP) within the
Department of Homeland Security (DHS) was given responsibility to access, receive,
and analyze law enforcement information, intelligence information, and other
information from federal, state, and local government agencies and private sector
entities and to integrate that information to identify and assess terrorist threats to the
United States; to make recommendations for improvements in the sharing of law
enforcement information, intelligence information, intelligence-related information,
and other homeland security-related information within the federal government and
between federal, state, and local government agencies and authorities; and to address
appropriate dissemination of information analyzed by DHS to other federal
government agencies, state and local governments, and private entities with
homeland security responsibilities. The Secretary of DHS, in consultation with
certain others, is charged with developing procedures for sharing and protecting such
information. The President is directed to prescribe and implement procedures under
which relevant federal agencies share homeland security information with other
federal agencies and appropriate state and local personnel through information
sharing systems.
Under the Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act of 2004, P.L. 108-
458 (December 17, 2004), the Director of National Intelligence (DNI) is given the
principal authority to ensure maximum availability of and access to intelligence
information within the intelligence community consistent with national security
requirements.157 The President is directed, among other things, to create an
information sharing environment (ISE) for the sharing of terrorism information in a
manner consistent with national security and with applicable legal standards relating


154 P.L. 95-511 (October 25, 1978), as amended, 50 U.S.C. § 1801 et seq.
155 This standard was changed from “the purpose” by the Section 218 of the USA PATRIOT
Act, P.L. 107-56.
156 P.L. 107-56, Section 504.
157 On August 27, 2004, President Bush issued E.O. 13355, “Strengthening Management of
the Intelligence Community” which gave the Director of Central Intelligence authority to
develop objectives and guidance for the Intelligence Community to ensure timely and
effective collection, processing, and dissemination of intelligence concerning current and
potential threats to the United States and its interests; and to address prompt sharing of
information and establishment of interoperable information sharing enterprise. In the wake
of passage of P.L. 108-458, many of these responsibilities now appear to rest upon the DNI
or the President.

to privacy and civil liberties, and to leverage all ongoing efforts consistent with
establishment of the ISE and to issue guidelines for acquiring, accessing, sharing and
using information; requiring federal department and agency heads to promote an
information sharing culture by reducing disincentives and providing affirmative
incentives in furtherance of this goal. A program manager is to be designated to
handle information sharing across the federal government, and an Information
Sharing Council (built upon the Information Systems Council established in E.O.
13356) is established to assist in furthering these goals. The Director of the National
Counterterrorism Center (NCTC)158is required to submit to Congress within one year
of passage of the Act, a strategy to counter terrorist travel, including, among other
things, a program for collecting, analyzing, disseminating, and utilizing terrorist
travel information and intelligence.159


158 By E.O. 13354, the President created an NCTC as the primary federal organization for
analyzing and integrating all intelligence pertaining to terrorism and counterterrorism,
except purely domestic counterterrorism information, and giving it the authority, among
other things, to receive, retain, and disseminate information from any source to fulfill its
responsibilities. Section 1021 of P.L. 108-458 also establishes an NCTC with somewhat
similar but not identical responsibilities.
159 Other legislation has addressed information sharing in particular contexts. For example,
Section 332 of P.L. 107-188, the Public Health Security and Bioterrorism Preparedness and
Response Act of 2002 (June 12, 2002), 21 U.S.C.A. § 679c(a)(3) and (4), authorizes the
Secretary of Agriculture to utilize existing authorities to give high priority to enhancing and
expanding the capacity of the Food Safety Inspection Service to conduct activities to, among
other things, “strengthen the ability of the Service to collaborate with relevant agencies
within the Department of Agriculture and with other entities in the Federal Government, the
States, and Indian tribes (as defined in section 450b(e) of Title 25) through the sharing of
information and technology;” and “ otherwise expand the capacity of the Service to protect
against the threat of bioterrorism.”
Section 108(a) of the Security and Accountability for Every Port Act of 2006 (SAFE
Port Act of 2006), P.L. 109-347 (October 13, 2006), 46 U.S.C.A. § 70107A, provides for
the establishment of interagency operational centers for port security at all high-priority
ports not later than 3 years after the date of the enactment of the SAFE Port Act. Under this
subsection, among other things, such interagency operational centers are to be incorporated
in the implementation and administration of maritime intelligence activities under 46 U.S.C.
§ 70113 and information sharing activities consistent with section 1016 of the Intelligence
Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act of 2004 (6 U.S.C. 485) and the Homeland Security
Information Sharing Act (6 U.S.C. 481 et seq.).
The Maritime Transportation Security Act of 2002, P.L. 107-295, addressed a range
of homeland security requirements relating to port security. Section 102 of that Act, 46
U.S.C. § 70112(a)(2), authorized the creation of area maritime security advisory committees
applicable to individual ports. For further discussion of information sharing in the maritime
security context, see General Accountability Office, Testimony before the Subcommittee on
Government Management, Finance, Accountability, Committee on Government Reform,
House of Representatives, on Maritime Security, Information-Sharing Efforts Are
Improving, GAO-06-933T (July 10, 2006).
Section 303 of P.L. 109-13, the Emergency Supplemental Appropriations Act for
Defense, the Global War on Terror, and Tsunami Relief, 2005 (May 11, 2005), required the
Secretary of Homeland Security, acting through the Under Secretary of Homeland Security
for Border and Transportation Security, in consultation with the Under Secretary of
Homeland Security for Science and Technology, the Under Secretary for Information
(continued...)

The President has issued a series of Executive Orders and a Homeland Security
Presidential Directive, which address various aspects of information sharing. In E.O.
13311 (July 29, 2003), which predated the release of the Final Report of the National
Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States on July 22, 2004, the
President directed the Secretary of DHS to carry out most of the information sharing
responsibilities under Section 892 of the Homeland Security Act.
E.O. 13355, Strengthened Management of the Intelligence Community (August

27, 2004) amended subsection 1.5 of E.O. 12333 (December 4, 1981), as amended,


which deals with United States Intelligence Activities. Under the E.O. 13355
amendments, the Director of Central Intelligence (DCI), among other responsibilities,
was directed to develop objectives and guidance for the Intelligence Community
necessary to ensure timely and effective collection, processing, analysis, and
dissemination of intelligence concerning current and potential threats to the security
of the United States and its interests; and, working with the Intelligence Community,
so that U.S. intelligence collection activities are integrated, among other things, “to
ensure that all collected data is available to the maximum extent practicable for
integration, analysis, and dissemination to those who can act on, add value to, or
otherwise apply it to mission needs.” E.O. 12333, subsection 1.5, as amended by
E.O. 13355, also directed the DCI to “establish common security and access
standards for managing and handling intelligence systems, information, and
procedures” with special emphasis on facilitating “the fullest and most prompt
sharing of information practicable, assigning the highest priority to detecting,
preventing, preempting, and disrupting terrorist threats against our homeland, our
people, our allies and our interests;” and “the establishment of interface standards for
an interoperable information sharing enterprise that facilitates the automated sharing
of intelligence information among the agencies within the Intelligence Community.”


159 (...continued)
Analysis and Infrastructure Protection, the Assistant Secretary of Commerce for
Communications and Information, and other appropriate federal, state, local, and tribal
agencies, within 180 days of enactment of Division A of that Act, to improve federal
communications systems to facilitate integration of communications among the federal
agencies and departments, and state, local, and Indian tribal agencies on border security
matters; and to enhance information sharing among federal departments and agencies, state
and local governmental agencies, and Indian tribal agencies on such matters. Within one
year, the Secretary of Homeland Security is also required to submit a copy of the plan and
a report on the plan with any recommendations to the Senate Committee on Commerce,
Science, and Transportation, the House Committee on Science, the House Committee on
Homeland Security and the House Committee on the Judiciary.
Section 1035 of P.L. 109-364, the John Warner National Defense Authorization Act
for Fiscal Year 2007 (October 17, 2006), requires the President, not later than April 1, 2007,
to report to Congress on building interagency capacity and enhancing the integration of
civilian capabilities of the executive branch with the capabilities of the Armed forces to
enhance the achievement of U.S. national security goals and objectives. One element of the
report is to address information sharing policies, practices, and systems. Cf. Government
Accountability Office, Information Sharing, the Federal Government Needs to Establish
Policies and Processes for Sharing Terrorism-Related and Sensitive but Unclassified
Information, GAO-06-385 (March 2006).

E.O. 13356, Strengthening the Sharing of Terrorism Information to Protect
Americans (August 27, 2004), which was later revoked by E.O. 13388, imposed a
duty upon the heads of agencies possessing or acquiring terrorism information to
promptly provide access to that information to other agencies with counterterrorism
functions under standards developed pursuant to the order. E.O. 13356 also directed
the DCI, in consultation with the Attorney General and other agency heads within the
Intelligence Community, within 90 days, to develop common standards for sharing
terrorism information with other agencies within the Intelligence Community, other
agencies with counterterrorism functions, and, through coordination with DHS,
appropriate state and local governmental authorities. Further, the executive order
required the establishment of an Information Systems Council to plan for and oversee
the establishment of an interoperable terrorism information sharing environment to
facilitate automatic sharing of terrorism information among appropriate agencies.
Homeland Security Presidential Directive-11, Comprehensive Terrorist-Related
Screening Procedures (HSPD-11), also issued on August 27, 2004, required the
Secretary of Homeland Security, in coordination with the heads of other federal
departments and agencies, within 75 days, to report to the President on plans and
progress for enhancing terrorist-related screening, including mechanisms for sharing
information among screeners and relevant government agencies.
E.O. 13388, Strengthening the Sharing of Terrorism Information to Protect
Americans (October 25, 2005), set out the information sharing duties of heads of
federal agencies possessing or acquiring terrorism information and requirements for
collection of such information within the United States. It also established the
Information Sharing Council,160 chaired by the ISE Program Manager, to provide
advice and information concerning the establishment of an interoperable terrorism
information sharing environment to facilitate automated sharing of terrorism
information among appropriate agencies to implement the policy set forth in section
1 of the order; and to perform the duties set forth in section 1016(g) of the
Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act of 2004.
On March 31, 2005, the Commission on the Intelligence Capabilities of the
United States Regarding Weapons of Mass Destruction issued its report. In Chapter
9 of the report, it stated, “The confused lines of authority over information sharing
created by the intelligence reform act should be resolved.” It recommended that
“[t]he overlapping authorities of the [DNI] and the Program Manager [designated
under Section 1016 of IRTPA] should be reconciled and coordinated–a result most
likely to be achieved by requiring the Program Manager to report to the DNI.” On
June 2, 2005, President Bush issued a Memorandum for the Heads of Executive
Departments and Agencies on “Strengthening Information Sharing, Access, and
Integration B Organizational, Management, and Policy Development Structures for


160 Section 5(a) of E.O. 13388 stated that Information Sharing Council membership was to
be composed exclusively of designees of: the Secretaries of State, the Treasury, Defense,
Commerce, Energy, and Homeland Security; the Attorney General; the Director of National
Intelligence; the Director of the Central Intelligence Agency; the Director of the Office of
Management and Budget; the Director of the Federal Bureau of Investigation; the Director
of the National Counterterrorism Center; and such other heads of departments or agencies
as the Director of National Intelligence may designate.

Creating the Terrorism Information Sharing Environment,” which, in part, placed the
Program Manager under the DNI throughout the initial 2 year term of the Program
Manager. 161
On November 16, 2006, Director of National Intelligence (DNI) John
Negroponte submitted to Congress the Implementation Plan Report for the
Information Sharing Environment (ISE), which includes “a description of the
functions, capabilities, resources, and conceptual design of the ISE;” “a plan for
designing, testing, integrating, deploying and operating the ISE;” and “a process for
measuring progress made toward implementing the ISE, as well as its performance
once established.”162 In the news release accompanying its submission to Congress,
ISE Program Manager Ambassador Thomas McNamara described the report as
“provid[ing] a roadmap for the successful implementation of the ISE” and
“respond[ing] to the recommendations of the 9/11 Commission.” In producing the
report, the Program Manager worked closely with officials from the Department of
Justice, the Department of Homeland Security, the Department of Defense, the
Department of State, and 10 other agencies on the Information Sharing Council, and
received input from state, local, and tribal officials and representatives from the
private sector.163
DHS Reorganization Related to Information Sharing. On July 13,

2005, Secretary of DHS Chertoff proposed a reorganization of the Department,


including elevation of the Information Analysis part of IAIP to become a stand-alone
office reporting directly to the Secretary. This Office of Intelligence and Analysis
would provide intelligence information in support of DHS, and would disseminate
information and intelligence to state, local, and tribal partners and other federal
agencies, including the Director of National Intelligence (DNI). Under the proposal,
it would work closely with Infrastructure Protection and with the intelligence
capabilities of other DHS components, and would provide intelligence analyses
throughout DHS and the Intelligence Community.
P.L. 109-90, the Department of Homeland Security Appropriations Act, 2006,
was enacted into law on October 18, 2005. In the accompanying conference report,
H.Rept. 109-241, the conference committee accepted the majority of a series of
budget amendments proposed in a letter from President Bush dated July 22, 2005.
These proposals reconfigured the Department of Homeland Security budget accounts
in a manner that was consistent with Secretary Chertoff’s proposed departmental
reorganization. One of the proposed changes accepted by the conference committee
divided IAIP into two new components – Intelligence Analysis and Operations and
a Preparedness Directorate. The position of Assistant Secretary for Information
Analysis/Chief Intelligence Officer was moved from the former IAIP to the Office
of Intelligence and Analysis, a stand-alone office established by the Homeland


161 For additional information, see CRS Report RL33042, Department of Homeland Security
Reorganization: The 2SR Initiative, by Harold C. Relyea and Henry B. Hogue.
162 News Release from the Office of the Director of National Intelligence Public Affairs
Office, ODNI News Release No. 21-06 (November 16, 2006).
163 Id.

Security Act reporting directly to the Secretary of DHS. In testimony before the
House Committee on Homeland Security, Subcommittee on Intelligence, Information
Sharing, and Terrorism Risk Assessment on October 19, 2005, the Chief Intelligence
Officer, Charles Allen, indicated that he had been directed by the Secretary of DHS
“to integrate all of the Department’s intelligence capabilities, not just those of the
Office of Intelligence and Analysis,” and to “marshal all the intelligence and
information in Homeland Security’s component agencies and deliver it to [the
Secretary] in a way he can use to make timely, risk-based decisions about how to
deploy the Department’s human and material resources.”164


164 Prepared statement of Charles Allen for the House Committee on Homeland Security,
Subcommittee on Intelligence, Information Sharing, and Terrorism Risk Assessment,
Washington, DC (October 19, 2005). See CRS Report RL33042, Department of Homeland
Security Reorganization: The 2SR Initiative, by Harold C. Relyea and Henry B. Hogue.