U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services' Immigration Fees and Adjudication Costs: The FY2008 Adjustments and Historical Context









Prepared for Members and Committees of Congress



The charging of fees for government services or benefits has long been practice in the United
States by the federal government. Such fees have usually been charged as a service cost recovery
only to those individuals who have used the service or benefit—so called user fees. More
recently, this question has focused on the Department of Homeland Security’s (DHS) Citizenship
and Immigration Service (USCIS), which adjudicates immigration benefit applications. As
immigration services grow in complexity, questions have emerged concerning what users of fee-
based services should be obligated to pay for. As related to immigration, the current debate tends
to produce two answers to the funding question: (1) an agency should either recover all of its
costs through user fees, or (2) an agency should only charge user fees that recover the costs
directly associated with providing services or benefits.
On May 30, 2007, USCIS published a new fee schedule for immigration and naturalization
adjudications and benefits. These adjustments would increase fees by an average of 88% for each
benefit. USCIS officials claim that the new fee structure is a necessary step to maintain proper
service levels and avoid backlogs. The issue for Congress concerning the proposed new USCIS
fees is whether USCIS has enough money to fulfill its mission and, if not, how that gap should be
funded.
As part of the former Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS), USCIS was directed nearly
two decades ago to transform its funding structure to become more fee-reliant. Although the
agency has been appropriated several hundred million dollars in the last decade, these
appropriations have largely been directed towards specific projects such as the backlog reduction
initiative. The vast majority of the agency’s funding, however, comes from the adjudication fees
of immigration benefit applications and petitions. Consequently, if the agency is to operate in an
efficient manner without the buildup of backlogs, agency funding must be sufficient to cover the
overhead and adjudication costs.
Cost estimates by both USCIS and Government Accountability Office had found that the previous
fee structure was insufficient to cover the services’ entire operation. How these funds will be
raised remains a divisive issue, since there is disagreement over whether such funding should
come from fee increases or direct appropriations.
Fee increase proponents contend that even under the proposed fee schedule, U.S. immigration
benefits are a “good deal” by world standards. Fee increase opponents are concerned about the
potential impact of fee increases on lower-income families, and further believe that the push for
making the agency entirely fee-reliant has resulted in a backlog buildup and promoted backlog
definition changes. The Citizenship Promotion Act of 2007 (H.R. 1379; S. 795) would provide for
an increase in directly appropriated funds to USCIS. Criticisms of the new fee schedule have
taken on a heightened significance in the face of issues such as backlog reduction and
comprehensive immigration reform. This report will not be updated.






Introduc tion ..................................................................................................................................... 1
USCIS Functions.......................................................................................................................3
USCIS Immigration Adjudications and Services................................................................3
USCIS Naturalization Adjudications..................................................................................3
USCIS Humanitarian Functions.........................................................................................4
Other USCIS Immigration-Related Matters.......................................................................4
USCIS Fraud Detection and Admissibility.........................................................................4
Administrative Overhead....................................................................................................4
Immigration Examination Fees.......................................................................................................5
Fee Increase...............................................................................................................................5
Notable Fee Increases.........................................................................................................6
Projected Workload.............................................................................................................7
Backgr ound ............................................................................................................................... 7
GAO’s Recent Investigations..................................................................................................10
Costs and Processing.....................................................................................................................10
Variance in Processing Costs...................................................................................................11
Additional Cost Reductions..............................................................................................12
Funding and Appropriations..........................................................................................................12
Projected Funding.............................................................................................................13
Historical Perspectives..................................................................................................................14
Previous Fee Increases............................................................................................................15
Historical Workloads...............................................................................................................17
Congressional Concerns, Legislative Developments, and Philosophical Tensions.......................19
Recovering Service Costs or Recovering Agency Costs?.......................................................19
Fee Waivers.............................................................................................................................20
Asylees and Refugees.......................................................................................................21
Reducing Bottlenecks.......................................................................................................22
Fees and Low Income Citizens and Legal Permanent Residents (LPR).................................22
Public Charges..................................................................................................................23
Policy Impact....................................................................................................................24
Backlog Reduction..................................................................................................................24
Definition Changes and Measuring the Backlog..............................................................25
Immigration Adjudication and Enforcement Linkages...........................................................28
Congressional Response...................................................................................................28
Comprehensive Immigration Reform......................................................................................29
Conclusion ..................................................................................................................................... 30
Figure 1. USCIS Appropriations by Type, FY2003-FY2008........................................................13
Figure 2. Receipts, Completions and Pending Applications for All Applications and N-

400 Naturalization, FY1999-FY2005.........................................................................................18





Figure 3. USCIS Pending Forms and Backlog of Forms Eligible for the Backlog
Elimination Plan, June 2003-April 2006....................................................................................26
Table 1. Costs and Funding from Actual Fee-Paying Benefit Seekers for FY2006 and
Projected Fee-Paying Benefit Seekers for FY2008/FY2009......................................................14
Table 2. Selected Historical Immigration Benefit Application Fees.............................................16
Appendix A. USCIS Fees, Processing Time, and Workloads for Immigration Benefit
Applications and Petitions..........................................................................................................31
Appendix B. Processing Time, Completion Rates, and Total Cost Per Petition............................34
Appendix C. Data on Applications for All Immigration Benefits and for N-400
Naturalizations, FY1998-FY2005..............................................................................................36
Author Contact Information..........................................................................................................37






The charging of fees for government services or benefits has long been practice in the United
States by the federal government. Immigrants, for example, have had to pay admissions fees for 1
entry into the country at least since 1903. Such fees have usually been charged only to those
individuals who have used the service or benefit, in order that the government may recover the 2
cost of providing that service—so called user fees. While this principle is seemingly simple, the
issue of cost recovery for immigration services has grown more complicated in the past two
decades. As immigration services grow in complexity, taking on new obligations and tasks
tangentially related to services, questions have emerged concerning what users of fee-based
services should be obligated to pay for. This question becomes especially difficult when an
agency is established that is based almost entirely around providing a fee-based set of services. In
such cases, agencies have historically received direct appropriations from Congress, thereby
receiving some funding from non-users. As related to immigration, the current debate centers
around two approaches to the funding question: (1) an agency should either recover all of its costs
through user fees, or (2) an agency should only charge user fees that recover the costs directly
associated with providing the given service or benefit.
More recently, this question has focused on the Department of Homeland Security’s (DHS)
Citizenship and Immigration Service (USCIS), which adjudicates immigration benefit
applications. This agency, which used to be a component of the Immigration and Naturalization
Service (INS), has transformed to become its own fee reliant agency, and has moved increasingly 3
towards recovering full agency costs from users. This movement resulted in a proposed new fee
schedule, which coupled with the reduced request for direct appropriations would make USCIS
almost completely fee reliant. The final fee schedule for immigration and naturalization 4
adjudications and benefits that takes effect on July 30, 2007, will increase fees by an average of 5

88% for each benefit and eliminate a number of fee waivers. As a result, over 99% of the 6


agency’s budget would come directly from user fees.
With the funding transformation of USCIS has also come a transformation in the stakeholder
composition of the agency. As the agency funding becomes increasingly fee-based, the general
public becomes less of a stakeholder in the agency’s activities. While such a shift may be a

1 32 Stat. 1213.
2 According to the Office of Management and Budget (OMB), the term “user fee” applies to “fees, charges, and
assessments the Government levies on a class directly benefitting from, or subject to regulation by, a Government
program or activity, to be utilized solely to support the program or activity. See OMB, Budget of the U.S. Government,
FY2000, Analytical Perspectives (Washington: 1999), chapter 4, “User Fees and Other Collections, pp. 93-104.
3 USCIS was originally named the Bureau of Citizenship and Immigration Services (BCIS) when the agency was
officially created on March 1, 2003 as a part of the new Department of Homeland Security (DHS). Prior to March 1,
2003, Citizenship and Immigration Services (CIS) had been an entity within the former Immigration and Naturalization
Service (INS), which was dissolved with the creation of DHS. This adjudication agency was renamed U.S. Citizenship
and Immigration Services on September 1, 2003.
4 These fee adjustments constitute the first fee revision since October 26, 2005. The fee structure is outlined in
regulations in 8 CFR 103.7.
5 U.S. Department of Homeland Security, U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services. “Adjustment of the Immigration
and Naturalization Benefit Application and Petition Fee Schedule, Federal Register, vol. 72, no. 103 (May 30, 2007),
pp. 29851—29873.
6 U.S. Department of Homeland Security, U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services, Fiscal Year 2008 Congressional
Budget Justifications.





welcome transformation financially, it raises functional questions over the degree to which
congressional oversight would be performed over an entirely fee-reliant agency. In essence, issues
arise from this agency transformation over whether the distribution of immigration benefits will
be driven by public policy or the market mechanism of agency cost recovery. Opponents of the
agency cost recovery contend that a fully fee-reliant agency compromises the public interest, 7
since the agency would only be accountable to itself for its costs and expenditures. If these costs
escalate through agency inefficiencies, critics argue, fees could eventually elevate to levels that
are prohibitively expensive for some potential users. Moreover, the recent fee schedule by USCIS
has raised questions by some observers whether the prohibitive fee levels have already been
reached.
Historically, the role of Congress has been to appropriate some funds to agencies adjudicating
immigration benefits, particularly in relation to multi-year special projects. Congress has also had
an oversight role in how these funds, as well as funds collected through fees, were being
obligated by immigration agencies. As such, congressional reactions to these new fees have been
strong and divergent, creating a continuum reflecting the overarching debate. The continuum
tends to range from service cost recovery advocates on one end to agency cost recovery advocates
on the other (hereafter referred to as service cost advocates and agency cost advocates,
respectively). Service cost advocates have called for congressional action to prevent the new fees 8
from being implemented. Although they are generally not opposed to the increased funding for
USCIS, the opponents wish for USCIS to only recover direct service cost and otherwise request 910
direct appropriations to offset agency costs. Agency cost advocates, however, contend that
subsidizing agency costs may keep fees low enough to potentially allow immigrants that qualify
as “public charges” under the Immigration and Nationality Act (INA) to receive immigration 11
benefits. These advocates further contend that the immigration benefits U.S. immigrants receive 12
are a “good deal” by world standards, even under the new fee structure. USCIS officials claim
that the new fee schedule, which is set to become effective July 30, 2007, is a necessary step for
them to maintain proper service levels and continue with other agency functions.
An issue for Congress concerning the new USCIS fees is whether USCIS has enough money to
fulfill its mission and, if not, should that gap be funded through increased fees. The fee increase,
however, raises potential issues for some Members. For example, although the new fees are based
upon cost estimates which showed previous fees were inadequate on a per application basis, there
are questions regarding how efficiently and effectively previously allocated resources have been
expended by the agency. Additionally, concerns exist over the agency’s expenditure of previous
direct appropriations aimed at reducing the agency’s application backlog. Some have questioned

7 U.S. Senator Barack Obama,Obama, Gutierrez, Schakowsky Bill Would Send Immigration Fee Hikes Back to the
Drawing Board,” press release, March 7, 2007, p. 1. This press release was distributed in association with the
introduction of the Citizenship Promotion Act of 2007 in both chambers of Congress (H.R. 1379 and S. 795).
8 Ibid.
9 Ibid.
10 Statements by U.S. House Representatives Steve King and Daniel Lungren in U.S. Congress, House Committee on
the Judiciary, Subcommittee on Immigration, Citizenship, Refugees, Border Security, and International Law, The thst
Proposed Immigration Fee Increase, 110 Congress, 1 sess., February 14, 2007.
11 INA §212(a)(4). The termpublic charge is used in the context of drawing public benefits for low income
households.
12 Statements by U.S. House Representative Daniel Lungren in U.S. Congress, House Committee on the Judiciary,
Subcommittee on Immigration, Citizenship, Refugees, Border Security, and International Law, The Proposed thst
Immigration Fee Increase, 110 Congress, 1 sess., February 14, 2007.





whether future applicants should shoulder the cost of processing previously submitted and
previously funded applications. Allowing the agency to become fully fee reliant, critics argue, 13
would only make the agency less accountable for any inefficiencies in processing. Another issue
concerning the fee increase is whether the reduction in fee waiver eligibility and the uniform fees
for most applicants are acceptable policies.

USCIS performs a variety of functions that cumulatively determine the agency’s costs.15 While
most of these functions are direct results of the agency’s processing functions, other costs such as
administrative overhead result indirectly from these obligations. Of the activities that are listed
below, administrative overhead and humanitarian functions are those which most frequently do
not have a fee associated with them.
There are three major activities that dominate the functions of USCIS: the adjudication of
immigration petitions, the adjudication of naturalization petitions, and the consideration of
refugee and asylum claims and related humanitarian and international concerns. USCIS also
processes a range of immigration-related benefits and services, such as employment 16
authorizations and change-of-status petitions.
USCIS adjudicators determine the eligibility of the immediate relatives and other family members
of U.S. citizens, the spouses and children of legal permanent residents (LPR), employees that
U.S. businesses have demonstrated that they need, and other foreign nationals who meet specified 17
criteria. They also determine whether an alien can adjust to LPR status.
USCIS is responsible for naturalization, a process in which LPR may become U.S. citizens if they
meet the requirements of the law. Adjudicators must determine whether aliens have continuously
resided in the United States for a specified period of time, have good moral character, have the
ability to read, write, speak, and understand English, and have passed an examination on U.S.
government and history. All persons filing naturalization petitions must be fingerprinted, as
background checks are required of applicants.

13 U.S. Senator Barack Obama,Obama, Gutierrez, Schakowsky Bill Would Send Immigration Fee Hikes Back to the
Drawing Board,” press release, March 7, 2007, p. 1.
14 Portions of this subsection were authored by Ruth Ellen Wasem.
15 For analysis of the USCIS budget see CRS Report RL34004, Homeland Security Department: FY2008
Appropriations, by Jennifer E. Lake et al.
16 For additional discussion on USCIS’ immigration-related responsibilities and organizational structure, see CRS
Report RL33319, Toward More Effective Immigration Policies: Selected Organizational Issues, by Ruth Ellen Wasem.
17 See CRS Report RL32235, U.S. Immigration Policy on Permanent Admissions, by Ruth Ellen Wasem.





This activity, located in the USCIS Office of International Affairs, adjudicates refugee
applications and conducts background and record checks related to some immigrant petitions 18
abroad. The largest component of this program is the asylum officer corps, whose members
interview and screen asylum applicants. Although a small portion of the USCIS workload, it can
be a high-profile activity.
USCIS also makes determinations on a range of immigration-related benefits and services. The
agency decides whether a foreign national in the United States on a temporary visa (i.e., a
nonimmigrant) is eligible to change to another nonimmigrant visa. USCIS processes work
authorizations to aliens who meet certain conditions and provides other immigration benefits to
aliens under the discretionary authority of the Attorney General (e.g., aliens granted cancellation
of removal by the Executive Office for Immigration Removal).
On an annual basis, USCIS adjudicates millions of applications for immigration benefits.
Adjudication of these various immigration and naturalization petitions, however, is not a routine
matter of processing paperwork. USCIS must confirm not only that the aliens are eligible for the
particular immigration status they are seeking, but also whether they should be rejected because 19
of other requirements of the law. USCIS established the Office of Fraud Detection and National
Security to work with the appropriate law enforcement entities to handle national security and
criminal “hits” on aliens and to identify systemic fraud in the application process. Many of these
duties were formerly performed by the INS enforcement arm that is now part of DHS’
Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE).
In addition to the functions listed above, USCIS is also responsible for a host of administrative
tasks that contribute to overhead costs, including the maintenance of a number of databases and
projects. The agency has been granted several direct appropriations by Congress to deal with
these databases in previous years, partly due to the costs associated with the projects. For
example, USCIS is currently responsible for a project to modernize its systems and processes in 20
an effort to improve information sharing, workload capacity, and system integrity. Additionally,
USCIS is responsible for the Employment Eligibility Verification (EEV) program for worksite 21
enforcement, and is seeking to expand the program through streamlined processes and 22
marketing initiatives.

18 For more on refugee and asylum policy, see CRS Report RL31269, Refugee Admissions and Resettlement Policy, by
Andorra Bruno, and CRS Report RL32621, U.S. Immigration Policy on Asylum Seekers, by Ruth Ellen Wasem.
19 For more information, see CRS Report RS20916, Immigration and Naturalization Fundamentals, by Ruth Ellen
Wasem.
20 U.S. Department of Homeland Security, U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services, Fiscal Year 2008 Congressional
Budget Justifications.
21 For additional discussion of the EEV, see CRS Report RL33973, Unauthorized Employment in the United States:
(continued...)






As previously mentioned, USCIS is a fee-reliant agency. The agency generally will charge a user 23
fee for the goods and services it provides. As part of the former Immigration and Naturalization
Service (INS), USCIS was directed nearly two decades ago to transform its funding structure with
the creation of the Immigration Examinations Fee Account (hereafter referred to as the exam fee 24
account)—an account designed to fund the agency’s activities and operations. Although the
agency has been appropriated several hundred million dollars in the last decade, these
appropriations have largely been directed towards specific projects such as the backlog reduction
initiative. The vast majority of the agency’s funding, however, comes from the adjudication fees
of immigration benefit applications and petitions. For example, in the FY2008 budget request, the 25
agency requested $30 million in direct appropriations. The remaining $2.5 billion of the 26
appropriations requested would be funded from collected fees. Consequently, if the agency is to
operate in an efficient manner without the buildup of backlogs, agency funding must be sufficient
to cover the overhead and adjudication costs.
The fees that fund the adjudication and petition processing at USCIS are deposited into the exam 27
fee account. The newly released fee schedule is based upon the first comprehensive cost 28
estimates of the activities funded by this account since FY1998. GAO released a study in
January 2004 that criticized the former USCIS fee schedule for being “outdated” and not

(...continued)
Issues and Options, by Andorra Bruno, and CRS Report RL33125, Immigration Legislation and Issues in the 109th
Congress, coordinated by Andorra Bruno.
22 U.S. Department of Homeland Security, U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services, Fiscal Year 2008 Congressional
Budget Justifications.
23 For further discussion on user fees and budget procedures, see CRS Report RS20439, User Fees: Applicable Budget
Enforcement Procedures, by Bill Heniff Jr.
24 P.L. 100-459 §209.
25 U.S. Department of Homeland Security, U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services, Fiscal Year 2008 Congressional
Budget Justifications.
26 Ibid.
27 There are two other fee accounts at USCIS, known as the H-1B Nonimmigrant Petitioner Account and the Fraud
Prevention and Detection Account. The funding in these accounts is drawn from separate fees that are statutorily
determined (P.L. 106-311 and P.L. 109-13, respectively). Furthermore, the former fee funds are required to be paid by
employers who participate in the H-1B program. The latter fees are for activities related to detecting and preventing
fraud in benefit applications for initial grants of H-1B, H-2B, or L visa classification to foreign nationals. USCIS
receives 5% of the H-1B Nonimmigrant Petitioner Account funding and 33% of the Fraud Detection and Prevention
Account funding (the remaining portion of these funds are appropriated to other agencies for activities such as worker
retraining and fraud prevention). In FY2006, the USCIS shares of funding in these accounts were approximately $13
million and $16 million respectively, and these funds combined for roughly 3% of the USCIS budget. (U.S.
Department of Homeland Security, U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services, Fiscal Year 2008 Congressional
Budget Justifications).
28 U.S. Department of Homeland Security, “U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services, Adjustment of the Immigration
and Naturalization Benefit Application and Petition Fee Schedule; Proposed Rule,” Federal Register, vol. 72, no. 21
(February1, 2007), p. 4892. (Hereafter, U.S. Department of Homeland Security, “U.S. Citizenship and Immigration
Services, Adjustment of the Immigration and Naturalization Benefit Application and Petition Fee Schedule; Proposed
Rule.”)





reflecting increased costs of additional processing actions put into effect after the fee schedule.29
Subsequently, USCIS performed the recommended comprehensive fee study. The outcome of the
most recent cost assessment was that the previous fees did “not reflect the current processes or 30
recover the full cost of services that should be provided.” In response, the new petition and fee 31
schedule will raise the fee average by $174, from an average fee of $264 to $438.
As the fee schedule shows in Appendix A, although numerous forms will have an upward fee
adjustment, there are four different forms that will result in fee increases of more than $500: I-
485, I-526, I-698, and I-829. Forms I-526 and I-829 applications are for the “initial application of
an alien entrepreneur” and the “removal of conditional status on an alien entrepreneur’s legal
permanent residence (LPR) classification,” respectively. These immigrants must provide $1
million to invest in a U.S.-based enterprise ($500,000 for targeted areas) to qualify for entry as an 32
alien entrepreneur. Form I-698 is a petition to adjust from temporary to permanent status. All
three of these forms are relatively low volume petitions. As Appendix A shows, these three forms
combined for a total volume of 1,519 petitions in FY2006, or less than one tenth of 1% of the
total workload volume.
Critics of the fee schedule have reacted to the fee increase, most frequently with respect to adjust 33
status or register as a permanent resident (Form I-485). This form is required by all foreign
nationals applying for LPR status and experienced a volume of 606,425 applications in FY2006. 34
The application fee is scheduled to increase from $325 to $930, an increase of $605 or 186%.
Critics have argued that this fee increase places a significant burden on lower income families
who must pay this fee for each family member. USCIS has responded to these criticisms by
noting that despite the significant increase, applicants who file to adjust status would no longer be
charged for interim benefits, including applications for travel documents and employment
authorization. For applicants with interim benefits, USCIS estimates that the multi-year cost for
an adjustment of status to permanent resident is approximately $800, thus accounting for most of

29 U.S. Government Accountability Office, Immigration Application Fees: Current Fees are not Sufficient to Fund U.S.
Citizenship and Immigration Services’ Operations, GAO-04-309R, January 5, 2004.
30 U.S. Department of Homeland Security, “U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services, Adjustment of the Immigration
and Naturalization Benefit Application and Petition Fee Schedule; Proposed Rule,” p. 4888.
31 Ibid.
32 For additional information on alien entrepreneurs, see CRS Report RL33844, Foreign Investor Visas: Policies and
Issues, by Chad C. Haddal.
33 Letter from American Immigration Lawyers Association, to the Director of the Regulatory Management Division,
USCIS, April 1, 2007, at http://www.bibdaily.com/pdfs/AILA%20fee%20comment%204-1-07.pdf.
34 Previously, all individuals ages 14-79 were required to pay the $325 I-485 application fee and a $70 biometrics fee.
For individuals under the age of 14, the I-485 fee was $225 with no biometrics fee. Individuals over the age of 79 paid
the full I-485 cost but were not required to pay a biometrics fee. Under the new schedule, children under age 14
applying with at least one parent will have to pay $600, while those over the age of 79 will have to pay $930. Neither
children under age 14 or adults over the age of 79 will be required to pay the biometrics fee.





the fee.35 Critics, however, have noted that the new fee would also be charged to individuals who 36
do not seek interim benefits, such as juvenile family members.
Despite the significant fee increase, USCIS projects a reduced workload volume for FY2008 and 37
FY2009 (hereafter FY2008/09). Much of this decrease comes from an assumption that 38
temporary protected status (TPS) will not continue for individuals of certain nationalities. The
result of this assumption is a projected decrease of 304,086 applications from FY2006 levels in
both I-821 (application for temporary protected status) and I-765 applications (application for
employment authorization). In total, the workload volume for USCIS is projected to decrease by
414,317 applications or 7%, from 5,991,362 to 5,577,045. Furthermore, according to USCIS, the
fee paying volume of the total workload is projected to decrease by 960,204 applications or 17%,
from 5,702,571 to 4,742,367. The discrepancy between the workload volume and fee-paying
reductions is partly due to the absorption of interim benefit applications for work and travel 39
authorization into the adjustment of status application.
Since the passage of the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952 (INA),40 immigration statutes
have prescribed a number of fees for certain government services. Furthermore, under a general 41
“user” statute in Title V of the Independent Offices Appropriations Act of 1952, government
agencies were authorized to charge fees for services they performed. Legislation in 1968 removed 42
the enumeration of statutory fees under the INA, and subsequently immigration fees were 43
prescribed in regulations under the authorization of the latter “user” statute.
Following the 1968 legislation, the INS continued to periodically adjust fees as it deemed 44
necessary. However, more concerted efforts towards making the adjudication functions of the

35 USCIS Director Emilio T. Gonzalez stated at a hearing that the average adult Form I-485 applicant seeks interim
benefits twice while his or her application is being adjudicated. (Testimony of USCIS Director Emilio T. Gonzalez, in
U.S. Congress, House Committee on the Judiciary, Subcommittee on Immigration, Citizenship, Refugees, Border thst
Security, and International Law, The Proposed Immigration Fee Increase, 110 Congress, 1 sess., February 14, 2007).
36 Statements by U.S. Representatives Luis Gutierrez, Artur Davis, and Keith Ellison in U.S. Congress, House
Committee on the Judiciary, Subcommittee on Immigration, Citizenship, Refugees, Border Security, and International thst
Law, The Proposed Immigration Fee Increase, 110 Congress, 1 sess., February 14, 2007.
37 U.S. Department of Homeland Security, “U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services, Adjustment of the Immigration
and Naturalization Benefit Application and Petition Fee Schedule; Proposed Rule,” p. 4903.
38 Ibid.
39 U.S. Department of Homeland Security, “U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services, Adjustment of the Immigration
and Naturalization Benefit Application and Petition Fee Schedule; Proposed Rule,” p. 4903.
40 P.L. 82-414.
41 P.L. 82-137, 31 USC §9701.
42 P.L. 90-609.
43 Charles Gordon, Stanley Mailman, and Stephen Yale-Loehr, Immigration Law and Procedure, vol. 1, §3.25[1]
(Matthew Bender, Rev. Ed.).
44 Prior to the recently published proposed fee schedule, USCIS underwent at least 14 revisions of its fee schedule.
While some of these revisions were due to cost assessments, others were minor inflation adjustments. These fee
schedule revisions occurred in 1969, 1976, 1978, 1983, 1986, 1987, 1991, 1994, 1995, 1998, 1999, 2001, 2004, and
2005.





INS more fee-reliant began during the second term of the Reagan Administration. At the same 45
time that Congress passed the Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986 (IRCA), which
included a legalization program for certain unlawfully present aliens, the INS decreased fees for 46
stays of deportation, but increased the fees for certain other deportation related motions. In the
publication of the final fee schedule after passage of IRCA, the agency stated that it believed it 47
was legally required to recover all of its costs for services it provided. The 1987 amendment to
the fee schedule added fees for the legalization program under IRCA, and despite opposition to
the $185 filing fee, the INS maintained that the charge was necessary to ensure that the program 48
was self-funding. In 1988, Congress mandated the creation of the exam fee account in the
Departments of Commerce, Justice, and State, the Judiciary, and Related Agencies Appropriations 49
Act of 1989, such that the funding for the legalization fees could be isolated. These fees would
then be available to the INS to recover any costs associated with providing immigration services. 50
The Chief Financial Officers Act of 1990 implemented the requirement that a federal agency 51
perform biennial fee reviews to determine the full cost of providing fee-based services.
Following the passage of the Immigration Act of 1990,52 the INS experienced a period of 53
unprecedented growth in applications and petitions for immigration benefits. This growth was
further compounded in 1995 when approximately 3 million individuals who had legalized under 54
IRCA became eligible to naturalize. At roughly the same time, the U.S. Government 55
Accountability Office (GAO) released a report on the financial practices of the INS. It found
that the INS had inadequate controls over its fee funding and was vulnerable to fraud and other
abuses. GAO also found that despite a large increase in fee funding, the agency suffered from 56
inadequate service processing times and poor leadership and management. The INS responded

45 P.L. 99-603.
46 In present terms, a “stay of deportation is referred to as a “cancellation of removal.” These changes occurred with
passage of the Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act of 1996. (P.L. 104-208, 110 Stat. 3009).
47 In its publication of the new schedule, the INS stated: “The INS and the EOIR believe it is clear that 31 U.S.C. 9701
and OMB Circular A-25 require Federal agencies to establish a fee system in which a benefit or a service provided to
or for any person be self-sustaining to the fullest extent. We believe arguments to the contrary are wholly without
merit. Fees are neither intended to replace nor to be influenced by the budgetary process and related considerations, but
instead, to be governed by the total cost to the agency to provide the service. A policy of setting fees on any basis other
than cost would violate this principle.” (U.S. Department of Justice, Immigration and Naturalization Service, “8 CFR
Part 103,” Federal Register, vol. 51, no. 213 (November 4, 1986), pp. 39993-39994).
48 Charles Gordon, Stanley Mailman, and Stephen Yale-Loehr, Immigration Law and Procedure, vol. 1, §3.25[1]
(Matthew Bender, Rev. Ed.).
49 P.L. 100-459.
50 P.L. 101-576.
51 Prior to the review of 2005, the most recent examination fee review had been performed by the Department of Justice
for the INS in FY1999.
52 P.L. 101-649.
53 For additional analysis of immigration trends and legislation, see CRS Report RL32235, U.S. Immigration Policy on
Permanent Admissions, by Ruth Ellen Wasem.
54 In response to the growth in naturalization applications, the INS launched an initiative called Citizenship USA,
which had the explicit goal of reducing the naturalization backlog and naturalize eligible applicants within six months
of submitting an application. According to GAO, the program experienced numerous quality and integrity problems,
and resulted in some ineligible applicants receiving citizenship. (U.S. Government Accountability Office, Immigration
Benefits: Several Factors Impede Timeliness of Application Processing, GAO-01-488, May 2001).
55 U.S. Government Accountability Office, Immigration Management: Strong Leadership and Management Reforms
Needed to Address Serious Problems, GAO/GDD-91-28, January, 1991.
56 Ibid.





to this report through centralization initiatives within the bureau and by stating that the new fee 57
schedule of 1991 would reduce the growing applications backlog. Yet, by 1993 concern among
observers had grown that the increasing fees were not producing the promised performance
results, and some critics asserted that the INS was using a portion of funds from the exam fee 58
account for enforcement activities rather than adjudication services.
Between 1993 and 2001, the INS continued to come under fire for not meeting its service 59
obligations, despite increases in funding from fees and appropriations. Many observers
suspected that the INS was using a portion of its immigration benefit collections to fund non-
service activities such as border security and interior enforcement. As a result of this suspected
interweaving of service and non-service funding, there was a significant push to separate the 60
service and enforcement functions of the INS. These efforts resulted in a series of 61
recommendations made by the U.S. Commission on Immigration Reform (Commission). In its
report, the Commission recommended that the INS be dismantled and the adjudication and
enforcement functions be divided up between the Department of State (DOS) and DOJ, 62
respectively. The Clinton and Bush Administrations, however, categorically rejected the 63
proposal of INS dismantlement, and instead pushed for internal reforms.
Subsequent to the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, Congress decided to formally separate
the enforcement and adjudication functions, as well as dissolve the INS. With the passage of The 64
Homeland Security Act of 2002 (HSA), Congress established USCIS, a new immigration 65
adjudication agency, within the newly formed Department of Homeland Security (DHS). INS
did attempt to increase its fees in FY2003 to cover certain additional costs related to security
checks, but DOJ did not act upon the request due to the upcoming transition of immigration 66
functions from DOJ to DHS. In the years since the agency was created, USCIS has been largely
dependent upon fees to fund its services, with direct appropriations being provided mainly for
temporary special projects such as the backlog reduction initiative.

57 Testimony of INS Commissioner Gene McNary, in U.S. Congress, House Committee on the Appropriations,
Subcommittee on Commerce, Justice, State, and the Judiciary Appropriations, Departments of Commerce, Justice, and ndst
State, the Judiciary, and Related Agencies Appropriations for 1992, 102 Congress, 1 sess., March 18, 1991.
58 Testimony of Theodore Ruthizer, president of the American Immigration Lawyers Association, in U.S. Congress,
House Committee on Government Operations, Subcommittee on Information, Justice, Transportation, and Agriculture, rdst
Immigration and Naturalization Service: A Mandate for Change, 103 Congress, 1 sess., March 30, 1993.
59 For example, GAO issued another report which found that despite making some progress, the INS had yet to
adequately resolve many longstanding management issues. (U.S. Government Accountability Office, INS
Management: Follow-up on Selected Problems, GGD-97-132, July 1997).
60 For further discussion, see CRS Report RL30257, Proposals to Restructure the Immigration and Naturalization
Service, by William J. Krouse, available upon request; and CRS Report RL31388, Immigration and Naturalization th
Service: Restructuring Proposals in the 107 Congress, by Lisa M. Seghetti, available upon request.
61 U.S. Commission on Immigration Reform, Becoming an American: Immigration and Immigration Policy, report to
Congress, Executive Summary, September 1997.
62 Ibid, pp. XL-LVIII.
63 CRS Report RL30257, Proposals to Restructure the Immigration and Naturalization Service, by William J. Krouse,
available upon request.
64 P.L. 107-296.
65 For discussion on USCIS organizational issues, see CRS Report RL31388, Immigration and Naturalization Service:
Restructuring Proposals in the 107th Congress, by Lisa M. Seghetti, available on request, and CRS Report RL33319,
Toward More Effective Immigration Policies: Selected Organizational Issues, by Ruth Ellen Wasem.
66 U.S. Government Accountability Office, Immigration Application Fees: Current Fees are Not Sufficient to Fund
U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services Operations, GAO-04-309R, January5, 2004, p. 22.





The HSA required that GAO report on whether USCIS would be likely to derive sufficient funds 67
from fees to carry out its functions without directly appropriated funds. The HSA specified that
funding for USCIS services would come directly from fees, and that these fees should be 68
sufficient to fully cover the cost of the agency’s services. As a result, GAO released a report on 69
fee-based funding and the processing costs of USCIS services for FY2001 through FY2003.
The principal finding of GAO’s investigation was that USCIS fees were insufficient to cover the
services’ entire operation. GAO determined that the costs were not fully covered by fees because
the fee schedule was based upon an outdated fee study, and in the interim additional processing
requirements and costs had developed. According to GAO’s cost analysis, the three year total for
FY2001 through FY2003 showed that $458 million, or approximately 11.4% of total operating 70
costs were not covered by fee collections. During the same period, Congress provided an annual
direct appropriation to INS of which approximately $441 million was used for administrative and 71
overhead costs.
In addition to USCIS’ fee collection shortages, GAO additionally determined that USCIS did not 72
have an effective strategy for reducing processing times to an average of six months, or a 73
strategy for reducing the backlog of pending applications. GAO consequently recommended
that USCIS undergo a comprehensive fee study to determine the cost of processing new
immigration applications, and that the agency determine the cost of eliminating the backlog of
pending applications. USCIS generally agreed with GAO’s recommendations and performed a
comprehensive fee study which served as the justification for the new fee schedule.

The cost of USCIS’ various activities is unknown. However, according to published data on costs
from the initial fee proposal, the majority of the agency’s costs come from processing activities.
These costs involve the various activities that USCIS conducts in order to adjudicate an
application or petition. Processing services therefore accumulate costs in the areas of: informing
the public, capturing biometrics, intake operations, conducting interagency border inspection
system checks, reviewing records, making determinations, performing fraud detection and
prevention, and issuing documents. In recent years, USCIS has come under scrutiny for poorly

67 P.L. 107-296, § 477(d)(3).
68 P.L. 107-296, § 457.
69 U.S. Government Accountability Office, Immigration Application Fees: Current Fees are Not Sufficient to Fund
U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services Operations, GAO-04-309R, January5, 2004.
70 Ibid., p. 13.
71 Presidents Budget Request for FY2002 through FY2004.
72 As part of a presidential directive on processing time, the agency has as a goal to reducing the processing time of all
immigration benefits to six months or less. (Remarks by the President at INS Naturalization Ceremony (July 10, 2001),
at http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2001/07/20010710-1.html).
73 The applications backlog was addressed further in a subsequent study by GAO, which found that USCIS had reduced
significant portions of its backlog by introducing criteria to redefine “backlogged” applications as “pending. (U.S.
Government Accountability Office, Improvements Needed to Address Backlogs and Ensure Quality of Adjudications,
GAO-06-20, November 2005.





assessing these costs and the agency has been criticized for what some have deemed as inefficient
processing performance. GAO has concluded that this processing under-performance is linked
directly to the agency’s insufficient recovery of its costs. USCIS has accepted GAO’s conclusions
and has been actively engaged in obtaining an accurate assessment of its costs—a process from
which the proposed fees stem.
CRS conducted its own analysis of the data released by USCIS in order to illuminate the cost
claims associated with immigration benefits being made by the agency. This analysis is included
in the sections below on costs, funding, and historical workloads. Because most of the data which
the analysis is based reflects FY2006 and projected figures for FY2008 and FY2009, the
conclusions drawn are only applicable to the current and forthcoming financial situation of
USCIS, except where otherwise noted.
One of the primary adjudication interests for many observers is the cause for the wide variance in
the processing costs of different immigration benefit applications. USCIS has stated that the costs 74
and new fee increases are related to the amount of processing time involved for each 7576
application. CRS analysis of FY2006 data published by USCIS indicates that as processing 77
time increases, the costs tend to increase as well. Moreover, analysis indicates that the new fees
also tend to reflect the current processing time involved across all categories of immigration
benefits. Thus, the new fees will statistically constitute an improvement over the previous fees, 78
since there is virtually no relationship between the previous fee and processing time.
In addition to the relationship of fees to processing time, USCIS has asserted that the costs (and
consequently the proposed fees) tend to be inversely related to the volume of applications 79
received for a given immigration benefit. Based upon application volumes for FY2006, this
assertion only results in a strong relationship for the lowest volume applications such as Forms I-
695, I-829, and N-300. Yet, when correlating the current workload to total costs and proposed

74 There are as of February 2007 four immigration benefit applications that take over 20 months for USCIS to process:
Form I-695, Form I-698, Form I-829, and Form N-300. As shown in Appendix B, these forms currently have
processing times of 23, 27, 39, and 24 months, respectively. Despite the long processing times and significant deviation
from the Presidents processing time goals, these applications constitute a relatively small portion of the actual
workload. Cumulatively, the FY2006 workload of applications with processing times of over 20 months was 1,039,
which represents less than one tenth of 1% percent of the FY2006 total workload of 5,991,362. Furthermore, based
upon the benefit forms in question, these applicants are unlikely to face immediate removal, be in violation of status
due to the application being pending, or otherwise have to apply for continuing benefits.
75 Testimony of USCIS Chief Financial Officer Rendell Jones, in U.S. Congress, House Committee on the Judiciary,
Subcommittee on Immigration, Citizenship, Refugees, Border Security, and International Law, 110th Congress, 1st
sess., February 14, 2007).
76 U.S. Department of Homeland Security, U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services, “Adjustment of the Immigration
and Naturalization Benefit Application and Petition Fee Schedule; Proposed Rule,” pp. 4888-4915.
77 Analysis of the total cost to processing time show a correlation score of 0.67, which is both strong and positive. The
correlation score between the proposed fee and processing time was 0.62.
78 These scores constitute significant improvements over the relationship of the previous fee to processing time, which
with a score of -0.07 indicates virtually no relationship.
79 Testimony of USCIS Chief Financial Officer Rendell Jones, in U.S. Congress, House Committee on the Judiciary,
Subcommittee on Immigration, Citizenship, Refugees, Border Security, and International Law, 110th Cong., 1st sess.,
February 14, 2007.





fees, the analysis showed that only a weak, inverse relationship existed.80 Furthermore, the same
data show that there is almost no relationship between the projected workload to the proposed 81
fee. Thus, while there is support for the relationship of new fees to processing time, the
evidence supporting the relationship of new fees to immigration benefit workloads is significantly
weaker. In other words, the data that USCIS provided do not support the asserted relationship of
fees to processing time.
In addition to the increase in fees, USCIS projects that some costs will be recovered through
future reductions in workload. Although such reductions do not reduce costs on a per application
basis, they do contribute to a reduction in the overall agency costs. For example, one of the more
significant reductions in activity costs comes from the assumption that temporary protected status
for nationals from certain Central American countries will not continue. Protections under the 82
Nicaraguan Adjustment and Central American Relief Act of 1997 (NACARA) are assumed not
to be renewed in the projected workload, and the combined effect of reduced volumes of
Temporary Protected Status applications (Form I-821) and employment authorizations (Form I-83
765) is a projected decrease of 304,086 applications. Additionally, the workload volume would
also be reduced for Form I-881, which pertains to the suspension of deportation or application of 84
special rule under NACARA §203.

In the push to make USCIS an entirely fee-based agency, USCIS has requested and Congress has
tended to appropriate decreasing direct appropriations for USCIS activities. These appropriations
are depicted in Figure 1 below. The President’s FY2008 budget request proposes a level of direct
appropriations that is 88% lower than that of FY2003 (the year USCIS was created). The $923
million in total direct appropriations during this time period (plus an additional $24 million
transferred to other accounts) have largely been dedicated towards backlog reductions and other
special USCIS projects, according to USCIS officials. Since FY2003, approximately $414 million
of these discretionary funds have been used specifically for the backlog reduction initiative.
Furthermore, Figure 1 demonstrates that while the proportion of discretionary appropriations to
the total appropriated amount has decreased, the mandatory appropriations from fee-based

80 The correlation score of -0.28 indicates that while the relationship did exist it was weak and inverse in nature.
81 Correlation analysis of the projected workload to the new fee returned a correlation score of -0.11.
82 P.L. 105-100, title II. For additional discussion, see CRS Report 98-3, The Nicaraguan Adjustment and Central
American Relief Act: Hardship Relief and Long-Term Illegal Aliens, by Larry M. Eig. The report is available from the
author.
83 U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services, “Adjustment of the Immigration and Naturalization Benefit Application
and Petition Fee Schedule; Proposed Rule, p. 4903.
84 According to the DHS Office of Immigration Statistics’ Immigration Monthly Statistical Report: FY2005, 79,251
cases, or roughly 78% of the pending asylum application total, were due to NACARA or the Haitian Refugee
Immigration Fairness Act (HRIFA) of 1998 (P.L. 105-277, title IX).
85 The calculations performed by CRS in this section are based upon the initial fee proposal, and not on the final rule.
The only fee difference between these two publications is the adjustment to Form I-485. The fee proposal called for a
fee of $905, while the final fee scheduled adjusted the fee to $930 for adults, and $600 for children under age 14
applying with at least one parent. CRS assumes in its analysis that this change will have little impact on the overall
revenues of USCIS.





collections has increased. In FY2003, of the $1.4 billion appropriation to USCIS, approximately
$1.2 billion or 84% were mandatory appropriations from fee-based collections. By FY2007, this
same proportion had increased to $1.8 billion or 91% of the agency’s appropriations. In the
FY2008 budget request for $2.5 billion, 99% of the funds are proposed to be fee-based
collections. The requested amounts for FY2008 includes the new USCIS fee increases.
Figure 1. USCIS Appropriations by Type, FY2003-FY2008
MillionsDirect Discretionary AppropriationFee-Based Mandatory Appropriation
3, 000
2, 500
2, 000s
n
tio
1, 500ropria
2, 539p
1, 7761, 000Ap
1, 199 1, 310 1, 551 1, 698
500
182114160215226
260
20032004200520062007 (Est.)2008 (Req.)
Fiscal Year
Source: CRS presentation of data from the President’s Budget Request for FY2005 through FY2008.
Note: The numbers used for FY2003-FY2006 are actual figures. The amount for FY2007 is estimated.
Appropriated amounts for FY2008 reflect the requested funds. The total requested amount for FY2008 was $30
million, of which $4 million would be transferred to other accounts. FY2004 appropriations do not reflect an
additional $20 million in discretionary appropriations funds that were transferred to other accounts.
In terms of the projected funding of USCIS from fee-based collections, the proposed funding
based on fee-paying volumes would have decreased under the previous fee structure. Due to
various factors such as the removal of temporary protected status from NACARA eligible
persons, USCIS forecasts a decrease in the fee-paying volume of 17% from approximately 5.7 86
million to 4.7 million fee-paying applicants. As shown in Table 1 below, funding from
applications scheduled for fee increases were approximately $1.44 billion. Based upon the
projected volumes of fee-paying applicants under the previous fee structure, the projected fee
funding for FY2008/09 would have totaled $1.25 billion, a reduction from the FY2006 fee
funding of $188 million or 13.1%. By contrast, this same projected volume under the scheduled
new fee structure would generate projected funding of $2.33 billion, representing an increase of
62.1% over the FY2006 fee funding. Consequently, the funding differences between the current

86 U.S. Department of Homeland Security, “U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services, Adjustment of the Immigration
and Naturalization Benefit Application and Petition Fee Schedule; Proposed Rule,” pp. 4888-4915.





and new fees under the projected volumes are $1.08 billion, with the new fees generating 86.5%
more funding in FY2008/09 than the previous fees would.
Table 1. Costs and Funding from Actual Fee-Paying Benefit Seekers for FY2006 and
Projected Fee-Paying Benefit Seekers for FY2008/FY2009
Processing Change from
Calculation Fee Funding (in millions) Change from FY2006 Activity Cost FY2006
(in millions)
Funding from FY2006 fee-paying volumes $1,438 N/A $2,259 N/A
with previous fees
Funding from projected fee-paying
volumes for FY2008/09 with scheduled $2,331 62.1% $1,983 -12.2%
new fees
Funding from projected fee-paying $1,250 -13.1% $1,983 -12.2%
volumes for FY2008/09 with previous fees
Sources: CRS analysis of USCIS data. Data is available in U.S. Department of Homeland Security, “U.S.
Citizenship and Immigration Services, Adjustment of the Immigration and Naturalization Benefit Application and
Petition Fee Schedule; Proposed Rule,” Federal Register, vol. 72, no. 21 (Feb.1, 2007), pp. 4888-4915.
Notes: Projected funding in the table do not include fees submitted to the H-1B Nonimmigrant Account or the
Fraud Prevention and Detection Account, nor do they include premium processing fees collected. The FY2006
processing activity cost does not include the fee waiver and exemption costs of $150 million or the asylum and
refugee costs of $191 million. For FY2008/09, USCIS expects these fee waiver/exemption costs and
asylum/refugees costs to account for the difference between fee funding and processing activity cost. Thus, these
programs and operations are expected to cost $348 million. Differences between the CRS reported figures and
those provided by USCIS may be due to rounding and the fact that CRS figures do not account for inflation. CRS’
numbers are only approximations.
An additional finding in Table 1 shows that based upon its own cost estimates USCIS has
recently collected funding that is significantly below its processing costs. According to the USCIS
cost estimates, processing activity costs for FY2008/09 would be approximately $1.98 billion
given the projected fee-paying volumes. With the proposed budget funding, fee funding would
completely recover processing costs in this time period. The projected processing activity costs
for FY2008/09 would be a 12.2% reduction from the FY2006 level of roughly $2.26 billion.
Furthermore, the projected financial situation for FY2008/09 constitutes an improved financial
profile for the agency as compared to FY2006. In FY2006, only 63.6% of processing activity
costs were recovered from fee funding, while under the scheduled new fee structure the fee
collections should exceed processing cost by almost $350 million. Thus, analysis of the numbers
shows that in order to recover activity processing costs additional funds to previous fees (either
through additional appropriations or fee increases) would be needed.

Congress has been concerned for many years about the immigration petition processing
difficulties dating back to the INS. As such, some Members question whether the scheduled new
fees will remedy the processing ills that have historically plagued the agency. In light of these
historical difficulties there are two concerns tied to the proposed fee structure: (1) the effect of





previous fee increases on workloads (also known as the elasticity of demand),87 and (2) the
general trends of the USCIS workload over time. The analysis below of each of these factors
helps illuminate the potential impact that a fee increase may produce by illustrating the effects of
recent fee increases.
According to historical fee schedules presented by USCIS, the agency has undergone two larger
upward adjustments of its most common fees (see Table 2) in the past decade, in FY1998 and 88
FY2004. Each of these adjustments was based upon the cost reviews implemented in FY1998.
Although other upward adjustments to the fee have occurred in the last eight years, they have 89
generally reflected inflation and thus constituted minor increases in fees. The fee adjustments of
FY1998 and FY2004 were more significant and thus warrant further examination.
Subsequent to the fee review implementation of FY1998, the immigration benefits workload 90
increased by roughly 62%, from 4.5 million in FY1998 to 7.3 million in FY2001. Furthermore,
the fee increase of FY2004 resulted in a workload increase of 14% over the subsequent two years
from 5.3 million in FY2004 to 6 million initial receipts in FY2006. However, between FY1998
and FY2002, when the fee increases were significantly smaller, the number of initial receipts for
immigration benefits initially increased to a peak level of 7.3 million in FY2001, before
decreasing to a level of 6.3 million in FY2002. Thus, the data revealed a direct relationship
between USCIS workload and the fees for the five most common immigration benefit
applications, as opposed to the expected inverse relationship of fees and workload moving in
opposite directions.
In order to compare application fees, CRS looked at fees for the five applications that had more 91
than 400,000 initial receipts in FY2006. These five forms (which are described in Table 2)
were: Form I-90 (replace permanent resident card), Form I-129 (petition for nonimmigrant
worker), Form I-130 (petition for alien relative), Form I-485 (adjustment of status), and Form I-
765 (employment authorization). Using the assumption that the demand for these applications has
been historically strong, CRS asserted that increases in these fees would be a reasonable indicator
for the potential impact (if any) of fee increases on overall demand for immigration benefits. In
FY2006, these five applications accounted for 3.96 million applications, or approximately 66% of
the fee-based applications processed by USCIS, not including fees for capturing biometric

87 The elasticity of price on demand is a concept within economic theory that measures the responsiveness of a change
in demand for a good or service to a change in price. Using this measure, economists may determine how changing the
price of a good or service changes the demand for that good. Goods and services whose percentage change in demand
for quantity of the good are greater than the percentage change in the price of that good are said to be “elastic.
Alternatively, goods and services whose percentage change in demand for quantity of the good are less than the
percentage change in the price of that good are said to be “inelastic.
88 U.S. Department of Homeland Security, “U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services, Adjustment of the Immigration
and Naturalization Benefit Application and Petition Fee Schedule; Proposed Rule,” pp. 4891-4892.
89 Ibid.
90 Ibid, pp. 4888-4915.
91 The number 400,000 was chosen on the basis that it was a seemingly logical cut-point in the projected workloads for
FY2008/09. For the projected workloads, 400,000 applications represents approximately 7% of the fee-paying
application total, not including biometrics.





information.92 Thus, even when accounting for concurrent applications, the fee changes on these
particular forms are likely to affect a significant proportion of the applicants.
Table 2. Selected Historical Immigration Benefit Application Fees
Form FY1994 (in dollars) FY1998 (in dollars) Change FY2002 (in dollars) FY2004 (in dollars) Change
I-90 $75 $110 47% $130 $185 42%
I-129 $75 $110 47% $130 $185 42%
I-130 $80 $110 38% $130 $185 42%
I-485 $130 $220 69% $255 $315 24%
I-765 $70 $100 43% $120 $175 46%
Average $86 $130 51% $153 $209 37%
Sources: CRS presentation of USCIS data. Data is available in U.S. Department of Homeland Security, “U.S.
Citizenship and Immigration Services, Adjustment of the Immigration and Naturalization Benefit Application and
Petition Fee Schedule; Proposed Rule,” Federal Register, vol. 72, no. 21 (Feb.1, 2007), pp. 4888-4915.
Notes: Form I-90 is the Application to Replace Permanent Resident Card; Form I-129 is the Petition for a
Nonimmigrant Worker; Form I-130 is the Petition for Alien Relative; Form I-485 is the Application to Register
Permanent Residence or Adjust Status; and Form I-765 is the Application for Employment Authorization.
As shown in Table 2, Forms I-90, I-129, and I-130 were each set at $110 in FY1998, which was
an increase of approximately 38-47% from FY2004 for these three applications. In FY2004, these
three forms experienced fee increases of 42% to $185 from the FY2002 level of $130. As for
Form I-485, its fee increased by 69% in FY1998 when compared to FY2004, from $130 to $220,
and was later adjusted upward by 24% from $255 in FY2002 to $315 in FY2004. Form I-765 was
adjusted upward by 43% in FY1998 to $100 from its FY1994 level of $70, and later increased by
46% from $120 in FY2002 to $175 in FY2004. On average, the fees of these five most common
forms were increased by 51% between FY1994 and FY1998, while the time span of FY2002 to
FY2004 showed an average increase of 37%.
Based upon the patterns of initial receipts by USCIS, the impact of past fee increases on demand
for immigration benefits seems negligible. Despite the increases in fees, the application rate for
immigration benefits remained in the millions. That is not to say that fee increases do not affect
the disposable income of the individual petitioners or does not represent a potential financial
hardship for some applicants. Rather, the overall demand for immigration benefits tends to be
inelastic. In other words, fee increases have little or no effect on demand. A possible
interpretation of the pattern of initial receipts is that the number of initial receipts is more
responsive to external factors, such as terrorist attacks (e.g., September 11, 2001) or natural 93
disasters (e.g., Hurricane Mitch striking Honduras). Depending upon the external factor, an
event may cause demand for immigration benefits to increase or decrease. Consequently, the
variation in the upward trends in immigration benefit applications are a complex interaction of

92 Capturing and processing biometric information is not included in the workload totals presented in the analysis of
this report, except where specifically noted.
93 Historical data show that the application rate for immigration benefits dropped immediately following the terrorists
attacks of September 11, 2001. Conversely, subsequent to the destruction caused by Hurricane Mitch in the Honduras,
applications for immigration benefits for Honduran nationals increased.





push-pull factors of potential immigrants with international events that affect the actual or
perceived supply of immigration benefits available.
In recent years, USCIS has experienced a varying workload on an annual basis. Figure 2 depicts 94
the USCIS workload in terms of initial receipts, pending, and completed applications. (The raw
data is presented in Appendix C). The figure further distinguishes the data between
naturalizations (Form N-400) and all other immigration benefit applications. As the initial
receipts of all benefit applications demonstrates, the number of initial receipts of applications
showed an upward trend between FY1999 and FY2001. Subsequent to this time period, the total
number of receipts has remained below the FY2001 peak. The completed applications totals
steadily increased between FY1999 and FY2002. In FY2003 this total declined by 13%, but
began to increase again in FY2004. In comparison to the initial receipts and completed
applications, the number of pending applications increased markedly from FY1999 to FY2003. In
this time period, the number of pending applications increased by 170%, before dropping by 41%
between FY2003 and FY2005.

94 The category of ‘initial receipts” are those applications which are received in a given fiscal year. Pending
applications includes all applications pending at USCIS, both from the current fiscal year and previous fiscal year.
Completed applications consists of the total of those applications that are approved and denied in the given fiscal year.
Since not all applications that are received in a given fiscal year are adjudicated in the same fiscal year, there may
appear to be some numerical discrepancy across categories in certain fiscal years. These discrepancies are generally
attributable to therolling over of applications from one fiscal year to the next.




Figure 2. Receipts, Completions and Pending Applications for All Applications and N-400 Naturalization, FY1999-FY2005
Millions
8
7
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In p e In p e In p e In p e In p e In p e In p e
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1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
Naturalization Ot her
Source: CRS Presentation of DHS Office of Immigration Statistics data.
Note: The category of “completed” applications is compiled from DHS data on “approved” and “denied” applications.





Unlike the pattern for the cumulative benefit application total in Figure 2, the totals for N-400
Naturalization applications show a distinct convergence pattern across initial receipts,
completions and pending applications. Prior to FY2002, the number of initial receipts and
pending applications experienced significant declines, while the number of completions
increased. However, beginning in FY2002, these three categories converged relative to previous
years. This pattern sustained itself through FY2005. Consequently, USCIS experienced a minor
workload decrease in the number of naturalization applications between FY2002 and FY2005.
This stagnation in the pending applications occurred despite the decrease in the cumulative
reduction of immigration benefits applications pending. Thus, it is unclear whether the
convergence pattern for N-400 applications was a result of an agency emphasis on processing
other pending benefit applications, or if the convergence occurred due to resource shortages or
factors external to the agency.


The issue of fee increases for immigration benefits has sparked a lively debate between
proponents and critics about the proper course of action for Congress. Agency cost advocates
argue in favor of a laissez-faire approach, contending that it has been Congress’ intent for USCIS 95
to recuperate all agency costs through fees and become fully fee-reliant. Service cost
proponents, however, are worried about the level of the fee increase and that wealth may become 96
a de facto driving element of immigration policy. These same critics have also stated concerns
over the potentially detrimental effects to congressional oversight of executive agencies that
receive no direct congressional appropriations. An added layer of complexity develops when
these opposing views are factored together with (1) the contextual relationship of fees to income
levels, (2) the linkages between legal adjudication and enforcement activities, and (3) the
potential for comprehensive immigration reform. Thus, the cleavage of agency cost recovery
versus service cost recovery has sparked a number of related issues for Congress.
The fundamental division running through the USCIS fee debate is the issue of which costs
USCIS should recover. While there is general agreement that the agency should recover the direct
costs of the adjudication services it provides, there is disagreement over whether this cost
recovery should extend to indirect costs as well. Since it was established as its own agency in
2003, USCIS has moved towards recouping an increasing proportion of its costs through fees
paid for applications and petitions. In the FY2008 budget request, approximately 99% of the
budget funding is proposed to stem from fee-based collections, making USCIS a fee-reliant 97
agency. What has concerned some observers is that under the current budgetary system

95 Statements by U.S. House Representatives Steve King and Daniel Lungren in U.S. Congress, House Committee on
the Judiciary, Subcommittee on Immigration, Citizenship, Refugees, Border Security, and International Law, The thst
Proposed Immigration Fee Increase, 110 Cong., 1 sess., February 14, 2007.
96 U.S. Senator Barack Obama,Obama, Gutierrez, Schakowsky Bill Would Send Immigration Fee Hikes Back to the
Drawing Board,” press release, March 7, 2007, p. 1.
97 Reports by the Congressional Budget Office and GAO conducted during the Clinton Administration found that
(continued...)





applicants allegedly bear the cost of other agency functions in addition to those being directly
sought.
User fees are intended to represent a payment for a benefit that is provided, and is frequently
related to the cost of the service that is being provided. In some cases, additional collections are
permitted to recover certain specified costs, such as the costs of processing refugees and asylees
who do not pay their own fees. However, for many service cost advocates, the trend towards 98
recovering full agency cost places too much of a financial burden on the applicant. Moreover,
service cost advocates have argued that making USCIS more dependent upon direct
appropriations from Congress would increase the congressional oversight functions and provide 99
an additional check on an executive agency. These critics believe that the push for making the
agency entirely fee-funded has resulted in a backlog buildup and promoted changes to the 100
definition of the agency’s application backlog. Service cost advocates believe that more
rigorous oversight by Congress of directly appropriated funds would both protect the interests of
applicants for immigration benefits and provide more transparency and accountability in the 101
agency.
Under regulations, individuals applying for certain benefits may also apply for a fee waiver if that 102
applicant can demonstrate an inability to pay. The criteria for demonstrating an inability to pay
are general, as it is USCIS policy to treat each case as unique and judge each case upon its 103
merits. For example, while it is desirable that an individual provides documentation to
demonstrate financial hardship, in some cases detailed testimony may be deemed sufficient by a 104
USCIS supervising officer to qualify the individual for a fee waiver. More commonly,
individuals demonstrate eligibility for a fee waiver by providing documentation such as evidence
that the individual has qualified for or received a “federal means-tested public benefit” within the
last 180 days or tax documents showing the individual’s income was at or below the poverty 105
level. Once the USCIS officer with jurisdiction over the request is satisfied that the individual
is unable to pay the fee, a fee waiver may be granted.

(...continued)
collections of user fees had increased during the 1970s and 1980s. GAO studied 27 fee-reliant agencies and found that
fees had also increased by approximately 27% between FY1991 and FY1996. (U.S. Congressional Budget Office, The
Growth of Federal User Charges: An Update, October 1999; U.S. Government Accountability Office, Federal User
Fees: Budgetary Treatment, Status, and Emerging Management Issues, AIMD-98-11, December 1997).
98 National Council of La Raza, “NCLR Critical of Fee Increases for Immigration Services,” press release, April 15,
2007, p. 1, at http://www.nclr.org/content/news/detail/25082.
99 Fawn Johnson, “Democrats Aiming to Roll Back Planned Hike in Citizenship Fee, CongressDaily, March 7, 2007,
at http://www.govexec.com/dailyfed/0307/030707cdpm2.htm.
100 Ibid.
101 Ibid.
102 8 CFR 103.7(c).
103 Memorandum, William R. Yates,Field Guidance to Granting Fee Waivers Pursuant to 8 CFR 103.7(c),” March 4,
2004, at http://www.uscis.gov/files/article/FeeWaiverGd3404.pdf.
104 The applicant’s affidavit of his or her inability to pay is the only required document.
105 Additional qualifying documents for fee waivers may include evidence verifying the applicant’s disability;
employment records, including pay stubs, W-2 forms, and tax returns; receipts for essential expenditures, including
rent, utility, food, medical expenses, and child care; evidence of applicant’s living arrangements, such as living in a
(continued...)





The new fee schedule will remove the fee waivers for several benefit applications and petitions.106
USCIS has justified this proposal on the basis that an inability to pay would invoke the
Immigration and Nationality Act’s (INA) §212(a)(4), which states that an alien who is likely to 107108
become a public charge is inadmissable, and as such would be ineligible for the benefit.
However, under the previous fee structure the USCIS’ field guidance memorandum stated that for
the fee waiver petitions for Form I-485: “The granting of a fee waiver does not necessarily
subject the applicant or petitioner to a public charge liability under other provisions of the INA, 109
such as deportability under §237(a)(5) or inadmissability under §212(a)(4).” Additionally, this
public charge rationale does not apply to U.S. citizens who may be petitioning USCIS on behalf 110
of a relative or fiancé, even though these citizens would also be ineligible for fee waivers. At a
congressional hearing on the new fee structure, USCIS representatives testified that across all
potential fee waiver categories, 85% of the applicants who applied for a fee waiver based on 111
financial hardship were granted a waiver.
One potential issue with the new fee schedule is that refugees and asylees adjusting their status
would be treated differently. As stated in the USCIS final fee schedule, asylees will not be able to
seek a fee waiver when applying to adjust status to legal permanent residence on Form I-485.
Refugees will not have to pay any fees because they are specifically exempted from adjustment of
status fees. While asylees are exempted from paying any fees for their initial asylum application,
they must apply for fee waivers to avoid paying to adjust their status or register as permanent
residents. The new fee schedule will no longer provide this waiver option. Despite USCIS’ claims
that aliens that could potentially become a public charge are inadmissable, asylees are exempt
from this ground of inadmissability. Thus, it is unclear from the USCIS’ publications what the
legal justification is for not allowing asylees to seek fee waivers for I-485. Furthermore, from a
policy perspective it is unclear why USCIS is developing disparate fee policies between refugees
and asylees on applications for adjusting status and registering permanent residence.

(...continued)
relatives household or having numerous dependents residing in his or her household; and evidence of essential
extraordinary expenditures for the applicant or dependents residing in the United States. (Charles Gordon, Stanley
Mailman, and Stephen Yale-Loehr, Immigration Law and Procedure, vol. 1, §3.25[1] (Matthew Bender, Rev. Ed.)).
For further information on federal public assistance for noncitizens, see CRS Report RL33809, Noncitizen Eligibility
for Federal Public Assistance: Policy Overview and Trends, by Ruth Ellen Wasem.
106 U.S. Department of Homeland Security, U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services. “Adjustment of the
Immigration and Naturalization Benefit Application and Petition Fee Schedule, Federal Register, vol. 72, no. 103
(May 30, 2007), pp. 29851—29873.
107 For further discussion on inadmissability, see CRS Report RL32564, Immigration: Terrorist Grounds for Exclusion
and Removal of Aliens, by Michael John Garcia and Ruth Ellen Wasem.
108 The forms for which a fee waiver would no longer be available include Form I-90, Form I-485, Form I-751, Form I-
765, Form I-817, Form N-300, Form-336, Form N-400, Form N-470, Form N-565, Form N-600, Form N-600k, and
Form I-290B (if related to a motion or appeal on a waiver eligible application). See Appendix A.
109 Memorandum, William R. Yates,Field Guidance to Granting Fee Waivers Pursuant to 8 CFR 103.7(c),” March 4,
2004, at http://www.uscis.gov/files/article/FeeWaiverGd3404.pdf.
110 Immediate relatives of U.S. citizens are not subject to a public charge determination when petitioning.
111 Testimony of USCIS Chief Financial Officer Rendell Jones, in U.S. Congress, House Committee on the Judiciary,
Subcommittee on Immigration, Citizenship, Refugees, Border Security, and International Law, 110th Congress, 1st
sess., February 14, 2007).





By removing several fee waivers, USCIS does not only stand to potentially reduce its costs for
internal processing, it also may gain more control over its processing times. Currently, fee
waivers are one of four types of applications that must be sent to the Federal Bureau of
Investigation (FBI) for background checks through the National Name Check Program 112
(NNCP). This program, which conducts electronic and manual searches of the FBI’s Central
Records System, has been accused by the USCIS Ombudsman of serving as a bottleneck in the 113
processing of immigration benefits. By eliminating several fee waivers, fewer applications will
be subject to the NNCP.
The principal stated concern of the service cost advocates is the effect of these fees on lower 114
income citizens and LPR that are applying for immigration benefits. These opponents of the
new fees argue that the new fee schedule will place a disproportionate hardship on citizens and 115
LPR with lesser financial means to seek immigration benefits such as naturalization.
As evidence of the possible disproportionate impact the fee-increase would have, service cost
advocates note the absence of any per family cap for immigration benefits. Although the new fee
structure has some discounted rates for juveniles under the age of 14, unless a waiver is granted
all family members must pay for individual applications for a given benefit. Under the new fee
structure there will not be a per family fee cap either, and a number of applications would no 116
longer allow for financial waivers. Service cost advocates have argued that the significant level
of the fee increases may force some families to seek benefits incrementally as opposed to as a
family unit, and may cause some families to forgo benefits for certain family members all 117
together.

112 The other types of applications that require NNCP background checks are asylum, adjustment of status to legal
permanent resident, and naturalization. USCIS pays the FBI for NNCP services with a portion of the biometrics fee
funding. The NNCP is one of several types of security checks USCIS conducts.
113 According to the USCIS Ombudsman, processing delays due to FBI name checks were an issue in 15.7% of all
written case problems the Ombudsman’s office received. The Ombudsman has recommended that USCIS not
participate in NNCP because of the costs and inconveniences caused by processing delays. He has additionally
suggested that these delays inadvertently increase the risk to national security, since it may extend the time a criminal
or terrorist remains in the United States. Moreover, the Ombudsman contends that since the NNCP is only a name
check, and not a biometric check, its security value is limited. (U.S. Department of Homeland Security, Citizenship and
Immigration Service Ombudsman, Annual Report 2006, June 29, 2006, pp. 23-26).
114 Letter from American Immigration Lawyers Association, to the Director of the Regulatory Management Division,
USCIS, April 1, 2007, at http://www.bibdaily.com/pdfs/AILA%20fee%20comment%204-1-07.pdf.
115 Ibid.
116 The proposed fee structure does not mention allowing any discounted rates on applications for juveniles under the
age of 14.
117 Letter from American Immigration Lawyers Association, to the Director of the Regulatory Management Division,
USCIS, April 1, 2007, at http://www.bibdaily.com/pdfs/AILA%20fee%20comment%204-1-07.pdf.





To further illustrate the potential impact of fee increases on lower-income families, service cost
advocates have cited the effect on a U.S. citizen or LPR seeking to sponsor the admission of 118
family members, but with an income slightly above the public charge level. Under INA §212,
an admissions officer may consider an affidavit of support to serve as a sponsor for an immigrant
who might be deemed a potential public charge. The statutory requirement for such an affidavit is
that the sponsor must maintain the sponsored alien(s) at a level that is not less than 125% of the 119
federal poverty line specified by the Department of Health and Human Services. For a family 120
of four, the 2007 poverty guidelines specifies an income level of $20,650 as the upper limit of 121
the poverty level for the 48 contiguous states and the District of Columbia. For such a
household, a gross income of $25,813 would render the U.S. citizen or LPR eligible for
sponsorship. Given the scheduled new fee structure, however, if the sponsor wanted to adjust the
status of the sponsored aliens, applying for the three sponsored aliens simultaneously would cost
a total of between $2,130—2,790, depending on the age of the dependents, plus fees for 122
biometrics. The removal of fee waivers would place the full financial obligation of these fees
upon the applicants and sponsor. Critics thus contend that such high fees could place hardship on
immigrants wishing to apply for immigration benefits.
By contrast, agency cost advocates contend that such examples of potential hardships actually 123
serve as a justification for USCIS’ proposed removal of numerous fee waivers. They note that
under INA §212(a)(4) a person who is likely to become a public charge is inadmissable to the 124
United States. Agency cost advocates thus contend that if an alien applicant requires a fee
waiver on the basis of income, that alien is inadmissable to the United States and should be
disqualified from receiving such a benefit. Consequently, based upon immigration statutes,
agency cost advocates argue that potential financial hardship is not a valid basis for developing a
USCIS fee schedule. Furthermore, they contend that the new immigration benefit fees should be
viewed in a comparative context, claiming that relative to other advanced industrialized countries 125
the USCIS benefit fees are lower.

118 Statements by U.S. Representatives Luis Gutierrez, Artur Davis, and Keith Ellison in House Committee on the
Judiciary, Subcommittee on Immigration, Citizenship, Refugees, Border Security, and International Law, The Proposed thst
Immigration Fee Increase, 110 Cong., 1 sess., February 14, 2007.
119 INA §213A(a)(1).
120 U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, “Annual Update of the HHS Poverty Guidelines,” Federal
Register, vol. 72, no. 15, January 24, 2007, pp. 3147—3148.
121 The poverty guidelines specify an upper income level of $25,820 for Alaska, and $23,750 for Hawaii for a four
person household.
122 The new fee schedule will set the fee for capturing and processing biometrics at $80. Since children under age 14
and adults over age 79 are exempt from the biometrics requirement, the biometrics fee for a family of four would vary
depending upon the ages of the household members. USCIS may also waive the biometric fee on an individual basis.
Additionally, children under the age of 14 who are applying with at least one parent will be charged an application fee
of $600.
123 Statements by U.S. House Representatives Steve King and Daniel Lungren in U.S. Congress, House Committee on
the Judiciary, Subcommittee on Immigration, Citizenship, Refugees, Border Security, and International Law, The thst
Proposed Immigration Fee Increase, 110 Cong., 1 sess., February 14, 2007.
124 As noted earlier, this criterion is not applicable to denying fee waivers to U.S. citizens petitioning on behalf of
family members or a fiancé.
125 Statements by U.S. House Representatives Steve King and Daniel Lungren in U.S. Congress, House Committee on
the Judiciary, Subcommittee on Immigration, Citizenship, Refugees, Border Security, and International Law, The thst
Proposed Immigration Fee Increase, 110 Cong., 1 sess., February 14, 2007.





Despite the possibility of admitting potential public charges, some opponents of the scheduled 126
new fee increases are concerned about the impact of the fee increase on immigration policy. As
one of the principal pillars of U.S. immigration policy, family unification has been central to the
INA since its passage in 1952. Some critics of the fee increase are concerned that the size of the
fee increase will cause a latent shift in immigration policy, where benefits will in a de facto
manner be denied to otherwise qualifying aliens on the lower end of the income ladder. These
critics believe the new fees may force some families to choose which of its members, if any,
should receive benefits, and thereby would run counter to one of the INA pillars. Therefore, some
of these critics believe that Congress should provide USCIS with some direct appropriations to 127
avoid the creation of an income-based double standard in the USCIS benefit processing.
An item that has concerned Congress for a number of years has been USCIS’ backlog of 128
unadjudicated applications. The USCIS adjudication process has also been a stated priority of
President George W. Bush, who has sought to reduce the application processing time for 129
immigrant benefits to six months or less. Congress has called upon the service to improve its
processing time and to eliminate the backlog. To this effect, since FY2002, Congress has
appropriated $574 million towards backlog reduction efforts, including $494 million in direct
appropriations. Although USCIS reports that the backlog has been reduced since Congress began
appropriating direct funds for backlog elimination, questions remain concerning whether most of
the backlog has been eliminated because of newly provided definitions of what constitutes a
backlog. USCIS Director Emilio T. Gonzalez has stated that the current backlog of applications 130
due to factors under the control of USCIS was approximately 65,000. Critics continue to be
concerned, however, about the more than 1 million additional applications that have been pending
for more than six months that USCIS does not count in its backlog figures, and that the 131
seriousness of the USCIS backlog is masked by changes in the agency’s backlog definition.

126 Letter from American Immigration Lawyers Association, to the Director of the Regulatory Management Division,
USCIS, April 1, 2007, at http://www.bibdaily.com/pdfs/AILA%20fee%20comment%204-1-07.pdf.
127 Ibid.
128 Statements by U.S. Representatives Luis Gutierrez, Artur Davis, and Keith Ellison in U.S. Congress, House
Committee on the Judiciary, Subcommittee on Immigration, Citizenship, Refugees, Border Security, and International thst
Law, 110 Cong., 1 sess., February 14, 2007.
129 Remarks by the President at INS Naturalization Ceremony (July 10, 2001), at http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/
releases/2001/07/20010710-1.html.
130 Ibid.
131 The DHS Inspector General has expressed concern that the changing backlog definitions “will not resolve the long-
standing processing and IT problems that contributed to the backlog in the first place. (U.S. Department of Homeland
Security, Office of the Inspector General, USCIS Faces Challenges in Modernizing Information Technology, OIG-05-
41 (September 2005), p. 28) The USCIS Ombudsman also criticized the definition changes, saying thatthese
definitional changes hide the true problem and the need for change (U.S. Department of Homeland Security,
Citizenship and Immigration Service Ombudsman, Annual Report 2006, June 29, 2006, p. 9).





The definition of the “backlog” of applications for immigration benefits has been altered several
times since FY2002. Generally, these redefinitions have involved determining that an aspect of
the adjudications process lies outside the control of USCIS and thus classifying a case as pending
as opposed to backlogged. In some cases, these reclassifications involved delays with background
checks conducted by other agencies. Other cases, however, have reclassifications that were due to
such factors as the agency awaiting customer information, or in some naturalization cases the
applicant still needing to take the oath. Critics contend that these changes in the backlog 132
definition were a significant factor in causing the backlog to decrease from approximately 3.5
million backlogged cases in March 2003 to 914,864 cases at the end of FY2005—a reduction of 133
nearly 2.6 million cases. Notably, as Figure 3 below shows, over half of the backlog reduction
occurred in the time span of June-August of 2004, when the agency twice redefined what
constituted a backlog. Thus, while the backlog was reduced by 1.9 million applications in this
time period, the number of pending applications increased by almost 1.5 million cases. But
because of the multiple definition changes of the backlog, the actual number of backlogged
applications is unclear.

132 Ibid.
133 U.S. Department of Homeland Security, U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services, Backlog Elimination Plan:
Fiscal Year 2006, 2nd Quarter Update, September 28, 2006.




Figure 3. USCIS Pending Forms and Backlog of Forms Eligible for the Backlog Elimination Plan, June 2003-April 2006
Thousa nds
7, 00 0
6, 00 0
Backlog Definition Changed
5,000Pending
4, 00 0
iki/CRS-RL340403, 00 0
g/w
s.or
leak2, 00 0 Ba c k l o g
://wiki
http1, 00 0
0
-0 3 ug- 03 t- 03 c - 0 3 b- 04 - 04 un-0 4 ug- 04 t- 04 c-0 4 eb- 05 pr- 0 5 un-0 5 ug- 05 t- 05 c-0 5 eb- 06 pr- 06
J un A Oc De Fe Apr J A Oc De F A J A Oc De F A
Source: CRS presentation of USCIS data presented in U.S. Department of Homeland Security, U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services, Backlog Elimination Plan: Fiscal Year nd
2006, 2 Quarter Update, September 28, 2006, p. 1.
Notes: On June 16, 2004, USCIS decided that the backlog calculation would no longer include applications received in the previous six months. In July 2004 the agency also
decided not to include cases in the backlog total where benefits were not immediately available for the applicant.





In 2005, GAO released a report on the USCIS backlogs and the reduction strategy that the agency 134
had in place. The report noted the importance many observers have attached to reducing the
backlog, as some believe the backlog creates incentives for businesses and individuals to
circumvent legal immigration procedures. The report noted that although a number of
improvements had been made in the adjudications process, the agency still needed to streamline 135
some of its processes and provide for a better quality assurance program. USCIS reportedly
planned to both address the current backlog and prevent future backlogs through improved
resource allocation and investments in technological transformation. Yet, as GAO noted, USCIS 136
did not expect these changes to be complete until FY2010.
Subsequent to GAO’s backlog report, USCIS has made additional strides to reduce its backlog 137
and increase its processing efficiency. Appendix B offers the processing times as of September
30, 2006. According to the published data, there were 20 immigration benefit forms for which the
processing time was less than six months, 13 forms with processing times exceeding six months,
and two forms for which processing times were not made public. When combined with the
workload totals from Appendix A, the forms exceeding the six month processing standard
combined for a workload volume of 1,519,598, or approximately 25.4% of the FY2006 workload
volume.
Despite these improvements in processing times, questions remain about USCIS’ current and
future handling of the backlogs and whether the proposed fee increase will affect the agency’s
ability to deal with these backlogs. USCIS claims that the scheduled new fees are more aligned 138
with the agency’s adjudication costs, and respond to the criticisms raised by the Government 139
Accountability Office over the USCIS cost structure. Thus, the agency contends that the new 140
fees will put the agency in a better position to prevent future backlogs. Some critics, however,
believe that due to the interagency dependence for conducting background checks, USCIS is not
necessarily in a position to prevent all future backlogs, even with funding that fully covers the 141
adjudication costs.

134 U.S. Government Accountability Office, Immigration Benefits: Improvements Needed to Address Backlogs and
Ensure Quality of Adjudications, GAO-06-20, November 2005.
135 One of the criticisms GAO presented was that despite the reduction in pending applications, a majority of the
pending applications at the time were for naturalization and adjustment of status. GAO was skeptical that USCIS would
be able to reduce the processing time below the Presidents adjudication target time of six months. However, as in
Appendix B demonstrates, by January 2007 the average processing times for adjustment of status had been reduced to
7.07 months, while the processing time for naturalization had been reduced to 5.57 months.
136 U.S. Government Accountability Office, Immigration Benefits: Improvements Needed to Address Backlogs and
Ensure Quality of Adjudications, GAO-06-20, November 2005, p. 5.
137 GAO reported that USCIS’ strategy for the backlog reduction initiative since FY2002 was to commit approximately
70% of backlog reduction funds to authorizing overtime and employing approximately 1,100 temporary adjudicator
staff. (Ibid, p.5).
138 U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services, “Adjustment of the Immigration and Naturalization Benefit Application
and Petition Fee Schedule; Proposed Rule,” pp. 4893-4894.
139 U.S. Government Accountability Office, Immigration Application Fees: Current Fees are Not Sufficient to Fund
U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services Operations, GAO-04-309R, January5, 2004.
140 U.S. Department of Homeland Security, U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services. “Adjustment of the
Immigration and Naturalization Benefit Application and Petition Fee Schedule, Federal Register, vol. 72, no. 103
(May 30, 2007), pp. 29851—29873.
141 For immigration benefit applications, USCIS submits names to the FBI for checks against the National Name Check
Program (NNCP) for the following benefits: asylum, adjustment of status to legal permanent resident, naturalization,
(continued...)





Among some service cost advocates, there have been concerns about the potential economic
impact and the flow of illegal immigrants the scheduled new fee increase might create. A number
of observers have contended that timely and affordable processing of immigration benefits are an
essential element for managing the levels of illegal immigrants. These observers contend that
slow processing times and higher fees encourage illicit work arrangements and visa overstays,
since workers are either priced out of the immigration benefits or placed in limbo by extended 142
waiting periods for USCIS adjudication. In particular, these fees could affect the behavior of
workers in low wage sectors of the economy. Additionally, some service cost advocates have been
concerned that if these fee changes do price out lower wage workers, then it could adversely
affect businesses that depend upon lower cost alien workers.
Contrary to some of these concerns, a statutorily mandated143 study was conducted by the agency
on the impact the fee increase would have on small businesses. Using analysis of a random
sample of immigration applications, USCIS determined that all employers in the sample would
exhibit an impact on their sales revenue of less than 1%. Additionally, since the study concluded
that the average impact on small entities was less than 0.06% of sales revenue, the proposed rule 144
was deemed by USCIS to be economically insignificant. Critics argue that pricing out low
wage foreign labor would benefit U.S. citizens by providing employment opportunities in those 145
economic sectors, as well as driving up wages by limiting supplies. Service cost advocates,
however, contend that in order to keep prices of their products lower and product demand high,
some business owners may seek out unauthorized aliens if low wage authorized aliens are 146
unavailable.
Representatives Gutierrez and Schakowsky introduced H.R. 1379, also known as the “Citizenship
Promotion Act of 2007,” which would prevent USCIS from increasing the citizenship application
fees to levels above application processing costs. Senator Obama has introduced an identical
version for consideration in the Senate (S. 795). This legislation would require that USCIS only
charge applicants the direct costs associated with providing immigration services. The legislation
would also mandate that USCIS be provided with a direct appropriation from Congress for any
indirect costs associated with immigration services. These cost estimates would stem from a

(...continued)
and waivers. According to the FBI, most electronic requests are returned by the system within 48—72 hours, at which
time some additional manual secondary checks are conducted. Some officials for USCIS have claimed that the FBIs
NNCP has served as one source of processing bottlenecks which has contributed to the existing backlogs.
142 U.S. Senator Barack Obama,Obama, Gutierrez, Schakowsky Bill Would Send Immigration Fee Hikes Back to the
Drawing Board,” press release, March 7, 2007, p. 1.
143 Regulatory Flexibility Act, 5 U.S.C §601(6).
144 Hereafter, U.S. Department of Homeland Security, “U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services, Adjustment of the
Immigration and Naturalization Benefit Application and Petition Fee Schedule; Proposed Rule,” p. 4913.
145 George J. Borjas, “Increasing the Supply of Labor Through Immigration Measuring the Impact on Native-born
Workers,Center for Immigration Studies Backgrounder, May 2004, at http://ksghome.harvard.edu/~GBorjas/Papers/
cis504.pdf.
146 U.S. Senator Barack Obama,Obama, Gutierrez, Schakowsky Bill Would Send Immigration Fee Hikes Back to the
Drawing Board,” press release, March 7, 2007, p. 1.





USCIS report the agency would be required to submit to the Judiciary Committees in the Senate
and House of Representatives identifying direct and indirect costs of providing immigration
services, as well as distinguishing such costs from immigration enforcement and national security
costs. No estimates have been released detailing the impact of this legislation on the fees
applicants would have to pay. Despite the potential of being criticized for shifting some of the
adjudication costs to taxpayers, sponsors of H.R. 1379 contend that the bill would offer benefits
beyond direct savings for immigration benefit applicants, such as improved congressional
oversight over USCIS.
As Congress considers comprehensive immigration reform, the issues of managing adjudication
workloads and recovering service costs could play a role in the debate. There are some who
believe that if comprehensive immigration reform happens, it will result in significantly higher 147
inflows of migrants and an increase in applications for immigration benefits. These beliefs are
based upon previous efforts at comprehensive immigration reform, as well as the current effort
entitled the Comprehensive Immigration Reform Act of 2007 (S. 1348), which would result in the
creation of several new immigration categories and wider visa eligibility for aliens abroad. Thus,
if these changes occur, USCIS would likely see an increase in demand for immigration benefits
and an increase in its adjudication costs.
Based upon the possible projected inflows produced by various immigration analysts, many
observers believe that USCIS is not in a position to process such a projected application 148
increase. Given the reported difficulties USCIS has had with reducing its backlog and pending
applications, some observers believe that USCIS would require a substantial funding increase in
order to address both the additional application receipts and the existing backlog. GAO, for
example, has noted that when the 3 million individuals who legalized under IRCA in 1986 149
became eligible for naturalization in 1995, the application backlog increased markedly. Some
additionally believe that if a legalization program took effect, the resulting increase in the
application rate for immigration benefits would make a direct appropriation necessary to 150
adequately staff USCIS prior to the legalization taking effect. They say an increase in fees
would potentially accomplish this task by allowing USCIS to build up a sufficient cash balance to
handle some increases in demand for benefits.

147 Testimony of USCIS Director Emilio T. Gonzalez, in U.S. Congress, House Committee on the Judiciary,
Subcommittee on Immigration, Citizenship, Refugees, Border Security, and International Law, The Proposed thst
Immigration Fee Increase, 110 Cong., 1 sess., February 14, 2007.
148 For an example of projected immigration increases under S. 2611, see Robert Rector, Senate Immigration Bill
Would Allow 100 Million New Legal Immigrants over the Next Twenty Years, The Heritage Foundation, Web Memo
no. 1076, May 15, 2006, and Robert Rector, Immigration Numbers: Setting the Record Straight, Web Memo no. 1097,
May 26, 2006. Additionally, see CRS Congressional Distribution Memorandum CD06164, Legal Immigration:
Modeling the Principal Components of Permanent Admissions, and CRS Congressional Distribution Memorandum
CD06124, Legal Immigration: Modeling the Principal Components of Permanent Admissions, Part 2, by Ruth Ellen
Wasem, available upon request.
149 U.S. Government Accountability Office, Immigration Benefits: Several Factors Impede Timeliness of Application
Processing, GAO-01-488, May 2001.
150 National Council of La Raza, “NCLR Applauds Introduction of ‘Citizenship Promotion Act of 2007,’” press release,
March 7, 2007, at http://www.nclr.org/content/news/detail/44631.






Although the current debate is based upon the division between recovering service costs versus
recovering agency costs, the near doubling of fees for immigration benefits may signal an
eventual shift in future fee debates. If fees for immigration benefits move beyond the tipping
point of what Members find acceptable, the focus could shift from what applicants should pay for
to what should the government charge. Current discussions over the possibility of a sliding scale
for fees has already hinted at this debate shift. Whether this shift would come to fruition likely
hinges on the ability of USCIS to control its costs and provide immigrants with a set of services
that Members deem acceptably priced. Yet, the debate will also likely be impacted by whether
Congress continues to support the notion of a fully fee-reliant USCIS and whether Members
agree upon legislation for comprehensive immigration reform.






Scheduled Fee FY2006 Actual FY2008/09 Projected Actual to Projected
Form No. Description Previous Fee (in dollars) New Fee Difference Workload Workload Workload
(in dollars) Volume Volume Difference
I-90 Application to Replace Permanent Resident Card $190 $290 $100 682,149 552,025 (130,124)
Application for Replacement/Initial
I-102 Nonimmigrant Arrival—Departure $160 $320 $160 24,139 24,035 (104)
Document
I-129 Petition for a Nonimmigrant Worker $190 $320 $130 417,955 400,000 (17,955)
I-129F Petition for Alien Fiancé(e) $170 $455 $185 66,177 66,177 0
iki/CRS-RL34040I-130 Petition for Alien Relative $190 $355 $165 747,012 743,823 (3,189)
g/wI-131 Application for Travel Document $170 $305 $135 371,880 339,000 (32,880)
s.orI-140 Immigrant Petition for Alien Worker $195 $475 $280 140,158 135,000 (5,158)
leak
Waivers Waiver Applications $265 $545 $280 45,459 45,459 0
://wikiAppeal for any decision other than BIA;
httpI-290B/ Motion to reopen or reconsider $385 $585 $200 47,645 47,645 0
Motions decision other than BIA
I-360 Petition for Amerasian, Widow(er), or Special Immigrant $190 $375 $185 16,086 16,000 (86)
I-485 Application to Register Permanent Residence or Adjust Status $325 $930 $605 606,425 613,400 6,975
I-526 Immigrant Petition by Alien Entrepreneur $480 $1,435 $955 600 600 0
I-539 Application to Extend/Change Nonimmigrant Status $200 $300 $100 233,531 220,000 (13,531)
Petition to Classify Orphan as an Immediate
I-600/600A Relative/Application for Advance Processing $545 $670 $125 29,500 29,601 101


of Orphan Petition


Scheduled Fee FY2006 Actual FY2008/09 Projected Actual to Projected
Form No. Description Previous Fee (in dollars) New Fee Difference Workload Workload Workload
(in dollars) Volume Volume Difference
I-687 For Filing Application for Status as a Temporary Resident $255 $710 $455 38,278 500 (37,778)
I-690 Application for Waiver of Excludability $95 $185 $90 3,293 3,293 0
I-694 Notice of Appeal of Decision $110 $545 $435 3,696 3,696 0
Application for Replacement Employment
I-695 Authorization or Temporary Residence $65 $130 $65 29 56 27
Card
I-698 Application to Adjust Status from Temporary to Permanent Resident $180 $1,370 $1,190 831 494 (337)
I-751 Petition to Remove the Conditions on Residence $205 $465 $260 143,360 143,000 (360)
iki/CRS-RL34040I-765 Application for Employment $180 $340 $160 1,462,583 1,300,000 (162,583)
g/wAuthorization
s.orI-817 Application for Family Unity Benefits $200 $440 $240 5,762 5,762 0
leakApplication for Temporary Protected
I-821 Status $50 $50 $0 N/A N/A N/A
://wiki
httpI-824 Application for Action on an Approved Application or Petition $200 $340 $140 40,105 40,785 680
I-829 Petition by Entrepreneur to Remove Conditions $475 $2,850 $2,375 88 88 0
Application for Suspension of Deportation
I-881 or Special Rule Cancellation of Removal (pursuant to section 203 of P.L. 105-100) $285 $285 $0 22,509 0 (22,509)
(NACARA)
Application for Authorization to Issue
I-905 Certification for Health Care $230 $230 $0 2 10 8
Workers
I-914 Application for T Nonimmigrant Status $270 $0 -$270 403 400 (3)
N-300 Application to File Declaration of Intention $120 $235 $115 91 100 9




Scheduled Fee FY2006 Actual FY2008/09 Projected Actual to Projected
Form No. Description Previous Fee (in dollars) New Fee Difference Workload Workload Workload
(in dollars) Volume Volume Difference
N-336 Request for Hearing on a Decision in Naturalization Procedures $265 $605 $340 13,692 14,000 308
N-400 Application for Naturalization $330 $595 $265 730,642 734,716 4,074
N-470 Application to Preserve Residence for Naturalization Purposes $155 $305 $150 669 669 0
N-565 Application for Replacement Naturalization/Citizenship Document $220 $380 $160 31,902 32,000 98
Application for Certification of
N-600/600K Citizenship/Application for Citizenship and Issuance of Certificate under $255 $460 $205 64,711 64,711 0
Section 322
Total, Services other than Biometrics 5,991,362 5,577,045 (414,317)
iki/CRS-RL34040
g/wBiometrics Capturing and Processing Biometric Information $70 $80 $10 3,318,000 3,154,330 (163,670)
s.or Total 9,309,362 8,731,375 (577,987)
leak
Sources: CRS presentation of USCIS data. Data is available in U.S. Department of Homeland Security, U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services, “Adjustment of the
://wikiImmigration and Naturalization Benefit Application and Petition Fee Schedule; Proposed Rule.” Federal Register, vol. 72, no. 21(Feb. 1, 2007), pp. 4888-4915; and U.S. Department of Homeland Security, U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services. “Adjustment of the Immigration and Naturalization Benefit Application and Petition Fee
httpSchedule,” Federal Register, vol. 72, no. 103 (May 30, 2007), pp. 29851-29873.
Notes: Waiver applications include Form I-191, Application for Advance Permission to Return to Unrelinquished Domicile; Form I-192, Application for Advance Permission to Enter
as Nonimmigrant; Form I-193, Application for Waiver of Passport and/or Visa; Form I-212, Application for Permission to Reapply for Admission into the U.S. After Deportation or
Removal; Form I-601, Application for Waiver on Grounds of Excludability; and Form I-612, Application for Waiver of the Foreign Residence Requirement.





Form No. Description Processing Time (in months) Completion Rate Total Total Cost (per Unit)
I-90 Application to Replace Permanent Resident Card 4.38 1.43 287
I-102 Application for Replacement/Initial Nonimmigrant Arrival —Departure Document 2.91 1.30 316
I-129 Petition for a Nonimmigrant Worker 2.03 0.49 316
I-129F Petition for Alien Fiancé(e) 2.9 5.76 451
I-130 Petition for Alien Relative 6.02 1.86 354
I-131 Application for Travel Document 1.97 0.88 302
I-140 Immigrant Petition for Alien Worker 3.31 2.87 473
Waivers Waiver Applications 9.39 3.1 543
iki/CRS-RL34040I-290B/Motions Appeal for any decision other than BIA; Motion to reopen or 7.73 N/A 583
g/wreconsider decision other than BIA
s.orI-360 Petition for Amerasian, Widow(er), or Special Immigrant 6.34 3.21 2,480
leakI-485 Application to Register Permanent Residence or Adjust Status 7.07 6.25 900
://wikiI-526 Immigrant Petition by Alien Entrepreneur 4.14 6.41 1,424
httpI-539 Application to Extend/Change Nonimmigrant Status 2.07 1.91 296
I-600/600A Petition to Classify Orphan as an Immediate Relative/Application for Advance Processing of Orphan Petition 3.39 1.53 665
I-687 For Filing Application for Status as a Temporary Resident 10.59 5.53 707
I-690 Application for Waiver of Excludability 10.19 5.63 602
I-694 Notice of Appeal of Decision 4.5 4.72 542
I-695 Application for Replacement Employment Authorization or Temporary Residence Card 22.76 14.85 1,329
I-698 Application to Adjust Status from Temporary to Permanent Resident 26.85 4.83 1,360
I-751 Petition to Remove the Conditions on Residence 3.74 1.82 463
I-765 Application for Employment Authorization 1.97 0.66 336
I-817 Application for Family Unity Benefits 3.94 2.91 435




Form No. Description Processing Time (in months) Completion Rate Total Total Cost (per Unit)
I-821 Application for Temporary Protected Status 2.54 N/A N/A
I-824 Application for Action on an Approved Application or Petition 3.63 2.18 338
I-829 Petition by Entrepreneur to Remove Conditions 38.94 8.69 2,832
Application for Suspension of Deportation or Special Rule
I-881 Cancellation of Removal (pursuant to section 203 of P.L. 105-100) 0.35 N/A N/A
(NACARA)
I-905 Application for Authorization to Issue Certification for Health Care Workers N/A N/A N/A
I-914 Application for T Nonimmigrant Status 3.64 N/A N/A
N-300 Application to File Declaration of Intention 23.88 1.67 748
N-336 Request for Hearing on a Decision in Naturalization Procedures 6.22 1.34 603
N-400 Application for Naturalization 5.57 1.17 590
iki/CRS-RL34040N-470 Application to Preserve Residence for Naturalization Purposes 16.18 3.39 640
g/w
s.orN-565 Application for Replacement Naturalization/Citizenship Document 4.35 1.18 379
leakN-600/600K Application for Certification of Citizenship/Application for Citizenship 5.27 1.97 457
and Issuance of Certificate under Section 322
://wikiBiometrics Capturing and Processing Biometric Information N/A N/A 79
http
Sources: CRS presentation of USCIS data. Data is available in U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services. “Adjustment of the Immigration and Naturalization Benefit
Application and Petition Fee Schedule; Proposed Rule.” Federal Register, vol. 72, no. 21(Feb. 1, 2007), pp. 4888-4915.
Notes: Waiver applications include Form I-191, Application for Advance Permission to Return to Unrelinquished Domicile; Form I-192, Application for Advance Permission to Enter
as Nonimmigrant; Form I-193, Application for Waiver of Passport and/or Visa; Form I-212, Application for Permission to Reapply for Admission into the U.S. After Deportation or
Removal; Form I-601, Application for Waiver on Grounds of Excludability; and Form I-612, Application for Waiver of the Foreign Residence Requirement.






Applications for Immigration Benefits N-400 Naturalization Benefits
Fiscal Year
Initial Approved Denied Completed Pending Receipts Approved Denied Completed Pending
1998 4,531,702 3,661,246 344,192 4,005,438 1,992,137 932,957 473,152 137,395 610,547 1,802,902
1999 4,534,938 3,572,263 314,833 3,887,096 2,487,403 765,346 872,427 379,993 1,252,420 1,355,524
2000 5,483,792 4,734,328 353,479 5,087,807 2,928,254 460,916 898,315 399,670 1,297,985 817,431
2001 7,333,338 5,606,705 460,844 6,067,549 4,083,052 501,646 613,161 218,326 831,487 618,750
2002 6,324,496 5,690,938 635,557 6,326,495 4,383,154 700,649 589,728 139,779 729,507 623,519
2003 6,419,618 4,833,017 665,895 5,498,912 5,370,248 523,370 456,063 91,599 547,662 628,025
2004 5,253,844 5,658,329 764,473 6,422,802 4,151,484 662,794 536,176 103,339 639,515 653,128
iki/CRS-RL340402005 5,609,957 5,893,064 777,438 6,670,502 3,182,223 602,972 600,609 108,247 708,856 552,940
g/w
s.orSource: Data is compiled from tables published in the DHS Office of Immigration Statistics’ Fiscal Year End Statistical Report for FY1999-FY2005.
leakNotes: The data in these tables are referred to as “to date” and are thus not the numbers considered final by DHS. Thus, some final adjustments to these numbers may
://wikihave occurred. The category of ‘initial receipts” are those applications which are received in a given fiscal year. Pending applications includes all applications pending at USCIS, both from the current fiscal year and previous fiscal year. Completed applications consists of the total of those applications that are approved and denied in the
httpgiven fiscal year. Since not all applications that are received in a given fiscal year are adjudicated in the same fiscal year, there may appear to be some numerical discrepancy
across categories in certain fiscal years. These discrepancies are generally attributable to the “rolling over” of applications from one fiscal year to the next.





Chad C. Haddal
Analyst in Immigration Policy
chaddal@crs.loc.gov, 7-3701